I    17  70 

,73 


X 


MILLIONS   FROM    WASTE 


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WASTE 


BY 

FREDERICK    A.    TALBOT 

Author  of 

The  Building  of  a  Great  Canadian  Railway" — "Inventions 
and  Discoveries" — "The  Steamship  Conquest  of  the 
World"— "The  Oil  Conquest  of  the  World." 
&c,  &c.  /\ 


X 


PHILADELPHIA 

J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 
LONDON:  T.  FISHER  UNWIN   LTD. 

1920 


1 


$r 


{All  rights  resi 

#»\1  PBINTBD  IN  0RBA1    BRITAIN 


PREFACE 

The  reclamation  and  exploitation  of  waste  products  for  a 
variety  of  industrial  uses  constitute  one  of  the  most  fas- 
cinating and  increasingly  important  developments  in  modern 
industry.  It  is  a  subject  of  which  very  little  is  known 
outside  privileged  circles,  and  the  possibilities  of  which  are 
but  scantily  appreciated  by  the  average  individual. 

The  purpose  of  this  volume  is  to  indicate  certain  of  the 
most  obvious  channels  through  which  wealth  incalculable 
is  being  permitted  to  escape,  as  well  as  the  narration  of 
something  concerning  the  highly  ingenious  efforts  which 
are  being  made  to  prevent  such  wastage.  While  written 
essentially  for  the  uninitiated  reader,  the  hope  is  enter- 
tained that  it  may  prove  of  certain  service  to  those  who 
are  fully  alive  to  the  potentialities  of  refuse  of  every  descrip- 
tion, and  who  are  endeavouring  to  redeem  the  country 
from  the  charge  of  being  wantonly  extravagant  in  its  use 
and  consumption  of  raw  materials,  both  edible  and 
industrial. 

The  subject  of  waste  reclamation  is  too  vast  and  intricate, 
albeit  romantic  and  fascinating,  to  be  treated  within  the 
scope  of  a  single  volume.  Consequently  I  have  confined 
myself  rather  to  those  phases  which  are  familiar  to  the 
average  person  and  to  the  losses  which  are  incurred  from 
their  inadvertent  destruction — losses  which  affect  both  the 
individual  and  the  community  in  general.  If  it  succeeds 
in  acquainting  the  man-in-the-street  and  the  woman  at 
home  with  the  enormous  wastage,  both  of  finance  and  kind, 
which  are  incurred  in  these  most  familiar  fields  during  the 
course  of  the  year,  and  persuades  them  to  observe  methods 


6  MILLIONS   FROM   WASTE 

of   thrift,  a   material   contribution   to   the   national   wealth 
should  be  effected. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  work  I  have  been  extended 
liberal  and  courteous  assistance  from  numerous  sources. 
I  am  especially  indebted  to  the  War  Office,  the  National 
Salvage  Council,  the  Food  Production  Department,  and 
the  Paper  Controller,  also  to  several  civic  and  municipal 
authorities,  notably  of  Glasgow,  Edinburgh,  Bradford,  and 
San  Francisco.  I  have  also  been  fortunate  in  securing 
valuable  co-operation  from  several  gentlemen  interested  in 
the  waste  problem,  including  Messrs.  J.  H.  Pooley  and 
James  Macgregor,  of  Messrs.  Ernest  Scott  &  Co.,  Limited, 
of  London,  Glasgow,  Fall  River,  Mass.,  U.S.A.,  Montreal, 
and  Buenos  Aires  ;  Mr.  Jean  Schmidt,  of  Industrial  Waste 
Eliminators,  Limited,  London  ;  Winget  Limited,  London  ; 
Mr.  H.  P.  Hoyle,  of  the  Grange  Iron  Company,  Limited, 
Durham  ;  Mr.  F.  N.  Pickett,  Hove;  and  J.  Grossmann,  Esq., 
M.A.,  Ph.D.,  F.I.C.,  etc.,  as  well  as  the  Editors  of  the  World's 
Work  and  Chambers's  Journal,  to  all  of  whom  I  express  my 
best  thanks. 

FREDERICK    A.    TALBOT. 
Brighton,  July  1919. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

PREFACE  .......  5 

I.      WASTE  :    ITS   RELATION    TO    COMMERCE    AND    NATIONAL 

ECONOMY     .......  9 

II.      THE  GERMAN   CONQUEST  OF  WASTE  .  .  -23 

III.  SALVAGE   FROM  THE  ARMY  SWILL-TUB        .  .  -37 

IV.  THE   RECLAMATION   OF   MILITARY  ORGANIC  WASTE  .         $0 
V.      INVENTION   IN   ITS   APPLICATION  TO   WASTE   RECOVERY.        63 

VI.  SAVING  THE  SCRAP   FROM  THE   SEA  .  .  .80 

VII.  WINNING     WEALTH      FROM     SLAUGHTER-HOUSE     OFFAL, 

CONDEMNED  MEAT,   BONES,   AND  BLOOD  .  .      IOO 

VIII.  TURNING   WASTES   INTO  PAPER        .  .  .  .117 

IX.  SUPPLYING   INDUSTRIES   FROM   THE  DUST-BIN       .  -141 

X.  LIVING   ON  WASTE      .  .  .  .  .  .157 

XI.  POTATO   WASTE  AS  AN  ASSET  TO   INDUSTRY  .  .169 

XII.  CONVERTING   NITROGENOUS   REFUSE   INTO  SOAP  .      1 83 

XIII.  TURNING   OLD  OIL  INTO   NEW  ....      196 

XIV.  BY-PRODUCTS    FROM    THE   WASTE-BIN  .  .  .      207 
XV.  THE      LIFTING      MAGNET       AS      A      WASTE-DEVELOPING 

FORCE  .......  225 

XVI.      RECLAIMING     321,000,000     GALLONS     OF      LIQUID     FUEL 

FROM   COAL  ......  239 

XVII.      FERTILIZERS   FROM    WASTES  ....  249 

XVIII.      SAVING  THE  SEWAGE  SLUDGE  .  .  .  .262 

XIX.      HOUSE-BUILDING   WITH   WASTES      ....  278 

XX.      THE  FUTURE  OF   THE   WASTE   PROBLEM  ;    POSSIBILITIES 

FOR  FURTHER   DEVELOPMENT      ....  297 

7 


<1 


CHAPTER   I 

WASTE:   ITS   RELATION   TO   COMMERCE   AND 
NATIONAL   ECONOMY 

Extravagance  is  the  inevitable  corollary  to  cheap  living. 
The  expression  "  living  "  is  used  in  its  very  broadest  sense, 
and  is  by  no  means  confined  to  the  mere  consumption  of 
foodstuffs.  If  living  be  cheap  the  thousand  and  one  attri- 
butes complementary  thereto,  from  wearing  apparel  to 
creature  comforts  for  the  home  and  from  raw  materials 
to  finished  goods,  must  necessarily  rule  low  in  price.  Under 
such  conditions  the  very  fact  that  it  is  cheaper,  as  well  as 
easier  and  simpler,  to  incur  a  further  capital  charge,  rather 
than  to  endeavour  to  induce  additional  service  from  what 
is  already  in  hand,  though  possibly  damaged  slightly,  prompts 
waste,  in  precisely  the  same  way  as  it  is  more  expedient 
to  replace  the  damaged  part  of  a  standardized  article,  whether 
it  be  a  motor-car,  sewing  machine,  typewriter,  or  watch, 
than  to  attempt  to  carry  out  a  repair. 

The  ready  availability  of  a  spare  part  directly  encourages 
waste  more  or  less.  The  convenience  is  provided  at  an 
attractive  figure  to  appeal  to  the  consumer,  while  to  the 
producer  it  renders  a  higher  proportion  of  profit  than  is 
attainable  when  it  forms  part  and  parcel  of  the  complete 
finished  article.  The  latter  is  not  marketed  at  the  aggre- 
gate of  the  prices  of  the  integral  parts,  as  one  may  promptly 
verify  if  they  feel  so  disposed.  From  this  it  must  not  be 
imagined  that  replacement  per  se  is  to  be  condemned,  except 
that  it  is  often  attended  by  the  complete  loss  of  the  dis- 
placed and  damaged  part.  Were  the  conservation  cf  the 
removed  part  conducted  the  system  would  be  deserving  of 


10  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

whole-hearted  support,  because  in  this  way  the  material 
of  which  it  is  wrought  would  be  available  for  further  use. 
Those  firms  which  insist  upon  the  return  of  a  damaged 
section  before  they  undertake  to  forward  the  replacement 
are  pursuing  a  wise  policy.  It  is  true  they  consign  the 
faulty  or  worn  part  to  the  junk  pile,  but,  at  intervals,  the 
latter  is  turned  over  to  the  manufacturing  interests  to 
undergo  further  exploitation. 

It  is  also  somewhat  significant  to  record  that  improvi- 
dence is  intimately  associated  with  cheap  labour.  Cheap 
living  and  cheap  labour  go  hand-in-hand.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  until  recently  the  average  working  members  of  the 
community,  from  the  comparative  point  of  view,  have 
been  guilty  of  greater  improvidence  than  those  who  are 
well-blessed  with  this  world's  goods. 

This  apparent  anomaly  is  readily  explicable.  In  the 
houses  of  the  wealthy  the  accumulation  of  residues  of  every 
description  must  necessarily  attain  imposing  dimensions. 
But  these  wastes  are  not  lost  to  commerce  and  industry. 
In  the  majority  of  cases  they  are  handed  over  to  the 
employees  by  whom  they  are  regarded  as  legitimate  per- 
quisites. To  gratify  some  individual  whim,  passing  fancy, 
or  from  inherent  tendency  to  bargain,  these  residues  are 
carefully  garnered  and  harboured  to  be  converted  into 
cash  through  one  or  other  of  the  many  purchasing  channels 
which  appear  to  diverge  to  these  centres.  The  cooks  dispose 
of  bones,  fats,  and  greases,  as  well  as  other  wastes  from  the 
kitchen,  to  the  itinerant  rag-and-bone  merchant ;  rejected 
wearing  apparel  finds  its  way  to  the  wardrobe  dealer ; 
worn-out  copper,  iron  and  aluminium  culinary  utensils,  as 
well  as  divers  other  metallic  odds  and  ends  gravitate  to 
the  specialists  in  old  iron  and  waste  metals  ;  superfluous 
produce  from  the  kitchen  garden  meets  with  profitable 
distribution,  while  even  the  swill  is  able  to  command  its 
market. 

It  is  the  opportunity  to  profit  in  pocket  from  such 
"  extras  "  which  acts  as  the  incentive  to  collect,  separate 
and  to  bargain  for  the  sale  of  wastes  from  a  pretentious 
house.  But,  as  the  social  scale  is  descended,  the  tendency 
to  keep  a  tight  hand  upon  the  refuse  suffers  unconscious 
relaxation.  This  is  primarily  due  to  the  fact  that  the  volume 
of  such  accumulations  undergoes  attenuation  as  the  social 


WASTE  11 

1  adder  is  descended.  As  the  bulk  diminishes  so  does  the 
impression,  "  Oh  !  it  is  not  worth  while  troubling  about !  " 
become  accentuated.  Finally,  when  we  reach  the  bottom 
of  the  ladder — the  average  working  household — the  quantity 
of  waste  is  considered  to  be  so  trifling  as  to  be  deemed  quite 
unworthy  of  consideration.  Consequently,  here  we  find 
the  whole,  or  at  least  90  per  cent.,  of  the  refuse  con- 
signed to  the  fire,  or  to  the  rubbish  heap,  instead  of  being 
preserved  and  turned  into  a  profitable  channel  to  receive 
a  new  lease  of  utility. 

As  with  the  home  so  with  the  office  and  factory.  The 
small  workshop  or  business  establishment  accommodated 
within  one  or  two  rooms  records  its  proportion  of  waste, 
but  it  apparently  is  so  slender  as  to  be  comparatively  insig- 
nificant. Furthermore,  as  a  rule,  it  is  so  varied  as  to 
aggravate  the  thought  of  being  more  nuisance  than  it  is 
worth.  Accordingly,  the  refuse  is  neither  sorted  nor  re- 
tained, but,  especially  if  it  be  combustible,  meets  with  an 
untimely  end.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  large  factory, 
the  accumulations  being  of  distinct  magnitude,  segregation 
and  careful  retention  are  observed  to  facilitate  ready  sale, 
while  arrangements  are  even  completed  for  the  periodical 
clearance  of  the  refuse  at  mutually  satisfactory  if  not  pre- 
vailing market  prices.  Whether  the  waste  ever  commands 
its  real  intrinsic  value  is  a  matter  of  opinion,  because  we 
have  never  been  persuaded  to  regard  the  residue  disposal 
problem  in  the  strict  commercial  sense. 

Reflection  gives  rise  to  the  question — What  is  waste  ? 
A  more  appropriate  explanation  than  a  paraphrase  of 
Palmerston's  famous  dictum  concerning  dirt  would  be 
difficult  to  find.  Waste  is  merely  raw  material  in  the  wrong 
place.  In  the  spirit  fostered  by  our  traditional  improvi- 
dence we  have  sought  to  adapt  another  existing  term  to 
meet  the  situation.  We  glibly  dismiss  waste  as  rubbish. 
It  is  not,  but  because  we  have  been  too  indolent  to  occupy 
our  minds  in  the  elaboration  of  further  possible  applications 
for  what  we  do  not  actually  require  for  conduct  of  the 
operations  with  which  our  individual  exertions  are  identified, 
we  seek  to  satisfy  our  consciences  in  the  easiest  manner. 
In  so  doing  we  essay  to  flout  a  fundamental  law  of  Nature 
— the  indestructibility  of  matter.  We  have  failed  to  appre- 
ciate that  what  may  be  of  no  immediate  value  to  ourselves 


12  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

may,  indeed  can,  with  judicious  and  scientific  handling 
be  persuaded  to  serve  in  the  capacity  of  indispensable  raw 
material  to  other  ranges  of  endeavour.  It  may  even  go 
so  far  as  to  supply  the  wherewithal  for  the  creation  of  new 
industries,  widening  the  possible  fields  of  employment, 
and  contribute  pronouncedly  towards  the  wealth  of  the 
nation. 

This  fact  can  be  brought  home  very  conclusively.  In 
the  opening  days  of  this  century  the  amount  of  fats,  oils, 
and  greases  which  were  allowed  to  run  to  waste  was  colossal. 
They  were  cheap  commodities  and,  although  they  occur  in 
greater  or  lesser  degree  with  the  majority  of  organic  materials 
in  popular  request,  not  a  thought  was  expended  upon  the 
possible  losses  which  their  discard  with  so-called  wastes 
represented.  But,  during  the  past  few  years,  the  demand 
for  these  substances  has  advanced  by  leaps  and  bounds. 
The}'  have  become  vital  to  the  table  in  several  forms,  and  this 
request  has  brought  the  food-producing  industry  into  con- 
flict with  another  trade  of  far-reaching  importance,  namely, 
the  manufacture  of  soap.  The  situation  is  rather  peculiar, 
as  I  point  out  in  a  subsequent  chapter.  Some  idea  of  the 
volume  of  fats  absorbed  in  the  preparation  of  magarine 
and  soap,  respectively,  may  be  gathered  from  the  narration 
of  the  fact  that  one  of  the  largest  soap  manufactories  in  the 
world  demands  the  supply  of  fat  in  a  steady  stream  of  about 
5,000  tons  per  week. 

A  few  years  ago  the  activities  of  this  particular  firm 
were  concentrated  upon  the  manufacture  of  soap.  It  was 
the  solitary  product.  But  it  had  its  attention  attracted 
to  the  growth  and  possibilities  of  the  margarine  trade,  and 
it  decided  to  enter  this  market.  To-day,  its  activities  are 
divided  between  the  production  of  the  two  commodities, 
and,  curiously  enough,  almost  equally.  From  its  works 
issue  out  about  6,000  tons  of  soap  and  4,000  tons  of  margarine 
every  week. 

This  merely  represents  the  endeavours  of  one  firm. 
There  are  scores  of  others  following  a  similar  line  of  action. 
The  result  is  that  the  demand  for  fats  has  reached  an  un- 
precedented level.  At  the  moment  of  writing  the  coarsest 
grade  of  fat  is  able  to  command  approximately  £50 — $250 — 
a  ton.  Is  it  surprising  therefore  that  every  effort  should 
now  be  made  to  extract  the  fats,  grease,  and  oil  associated 


WASTE  13 

with  every  form  of  organic  waste,  and  that  keen  effort 
should  be  made  to  secure  increasing  quantities  of  waste 
capable  of  yielding  this  material  ? 

So  far  as  the  public  is  concerned  this  spirited  search  for 
fat  may  be  regarded  with  misgiving,  if  not  absolute  alarm. 
The  wizardry  of  the  chemist  is  acknowledged,  and  the  thought 
possibly  prevails  that  much  of  the  fat  now  being  turned 
into  margarine  is  really  only  fitted  for  the  production  of 
soap.  But  alarmist  or  pessimistic  feelings  in  this  direction 
may  be  speedily  allayed,  though  it  is  permissible  to  point 
out  that  ten  years  ago  much  fat  was  turned  into  the  cleanser 
which  should  have  been  utilized  as  a  foodstuff,  inasmuch 
as  its  freshness  and  wholesomeness  were  above  all  criticism. 
It  was  merely  turned  over  to  the  soap-maker  because  no 
alternative  application  was  apparent.  But  conceding  the 
magical  qualifications  of  the  chemist,  there  are  some  feats 
which  yet  remain  beyond  his  powers.  The  ability  to  turn 
bad  fat  into  good  for  dietetic  purposes  must  be  numbered 
among  those  achievements  which  as  yet  have  proved  im- 
practicable. If  a  fat  be  rancid  it  cannot  possibly  be  re- 
conditioned for  edible  purposes.  No  matter  how  its  prepar- 
ation may  be  coaxed  and  nursed  it  cannot  be  converted 
into  a  foodstuff.  The  palate  would  detect  rancidity 
instantly.  Consequently,  only  the  highest  grades  of  animal 
fat  are  used  for  the  preparation  of  margarine  ;  the  fact 
that  the  big-scale  production  of  a  food  should  have  been 
embraced  by  the  soap-maker  merely  represents  one  of  those 
inexplicable  coincidences  of  industry. 

It  is  distinctly  interesting,  if  not  actually  amusing,  to 
follow  what  may  be  described  as  the  utilitarian  conjugation 
of  waste.  It  remains  an  incubus,  if  not  an  unmitigated 
nuisance,  until  the  chemist,  or  some  other  keenly  observant 
individual  possessed  of  a  fertile  mind,  comes  along  to  rake 
it  over  and  to  indulge  in  experiments.  Such  efforts  are 
often  followed  with  ill-concealed  amusement.  A  few  years 
since  they  were  even  regarded  as  so  much  waste  of  time. 
In  due  course  some  definite  conclusion  is  reached,  and  the 
fact  becomes  driven  home  that,  if  such-and-such  a  process 
be  followed  a  particular  spurned  refuse  can  be  utilized  as 
raw  material  for  the  production  of  some  specific  article. 
Then  scepticism  and  amusement  give  way  to  intense  interest 
and   speculative   rumination.     The   new  idea  is   submitted 


14  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

to  the  stern  test  of  practical  application  upon  a  commercial 
basis,  while  the  financial  end  of  the  proposal,  which  is  the 
determining  factor,  is  carefully  weighed. 

These  complex  issues  being  satisfactorily  settled  the 
exploitation  of  the  erstwhile  waste,  or  rubbish,  is  ener- 
getically pursued.  It  has  now  become  a  potentially  valuable 
by-product,  and,  accordingly,  must  be  worked  for  all  it  is 
worth.  Firmly  entrenched  upon  the  market  development 
is  vigorously  pursued,  often  to  culminate  in  the  quondam 
waste,  now  an  established  by-product,  being  lifted  to  such 
a  position  of  commercial  eminence  as  to  dispute  premier 
recognition  with  the  staple  in  the  production  of  which  it 
is  incurred.  In  more  than  one  instance  the  by-product 
has  even  eclipsed  the  primary  product,  or  at  least  attained 
a  level  of  equal  importance,  while  occasionally  the  staple 
has  even  suffered  virtual  deposition  to  rank  as  little  else 
but  a  by-product.  There  are  even  some  cases  on  record 
where  the  manufacture  of  the  staple  has  been  abandoned, 
at  all  events  for  a  time,  because  the  by-product,  the  former 
incubus  of  the  industry  has  become  invested  with  such 
far-reaching  importance  as  to  demand  the  concentration  of 
effort  upon  its  production.  Waste — by-product — staple  : 
such  constitutes  the  brief  evolution  of  more  than  one  of  the 
world's  leading  lines  of  trading. 

Many  instances  of  remarkable  topsy-turvydom  in  this 
connection  might  be  cited.  Possibly  one  of  the  most  im- 
pressive illustrations  in  this  respect,  although  the  trans- 
position is  not  yet  quite  complete,  is  offered  by  coal-gas. 
When  Clayton  first  demonstrated  the  practicability  of 
extracting  illuminating  gas  from  coal  commercialism  fever- 
ishly set  to  work  to  exploit  the  gas,  and  gas  only.  But  the 
gas  proved  to  be  associated  with  a  variety  of  substances 
which  threatened  the  very  future  of  Clayton's  discovery. 
Ammonia  fumes  poisoned  the  atmosphere  of  the  room  in 
which  the  gas  was  burned  to  the  grave  danger  of  the  health 
— even  lives — of  the  occupants  according  to  the  cynics,  critics, 
and  caricaturists  of  the  day.  The  tar  carried  in  suspension 
in  the  gas  was  every  whit  as  exasperating  because  it  con- 
densed in  the  mains  to  choke  them.  Ammonia  and  tar 
became  the  bane  of  life  to  the  gas-engineers  of  the  period, 
harassing  them  to  the  verge  of  endurance,  while  the 
elimination  of  the  two  deleterious  substances  involved  the 


WASTE  15 

expenditure   of   enormous   sums   of   money  and  prodigious 
thought. 

What  is  the  position  to-day.  Gas,  the  staple  product 
from  the  distillation  of  coal  three-quarters  of  a  century  ago, 
now,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  is  the  by-product.  The 
world  could  roll  along  very  comfortably  without  it.  Indeed, 
we  may  have  to  do  so  in  the  near  future  when  the  gas  is 
stripped  of  every  other  marketable  constituent,  leaving  only 
a  mixture  of  methane  and  hydrogen  gases  to  be  burned  under 
boilers  to  raise  steam  for  the  generation  of  electricity  in 
enormous  bulk.  The  ammonia  which  formerly  jeopardized 
health  and  lives,  and  to  remove  and  to  throw  away  which 
the  pioneer  engineers  strained  every  nerve,  is  now  trapped 
to  be  converted  into  fertilizer.  Then  the  tar  which  likewise 
nearly  drove  the  engineers  frantic  is  now  carefully  drawn 
off,  collected  and  resolved  into  a  host  of  wonderful  articles 
to  furnish  a  diversity  of  indispensable  materials.  It  would 
be  wearisome  to  recite  the  list.  It  is  so  lengthy.  But  it 
would  seem  as  if  the  by-products  of  coal  touch  every  other 
industry,  ranging  from  dyes  to  chemicals,  flavourings  to 
disinfectants,  perfumes  to  therapeutics  and  soporifics. 

As  with  coal  so  with  oil.  Forty  years  ago  the  boring 
of  a  well  was  followed  with  mixed  feelings  by  the  indefati- 
gable driller.  A  "  strike,"  while  devoutly  to  be  desired, 
was  just  as  likely  to  bring  dreadful  disaster  swift  and  sudden, 
even  death,  as  wealth  untold.  The  driller  probed  the  earth 
animated  by  one  idea.  This  was  to  tap  the  subterranean 
lake  of  crude  petroleum.  But  in  driving  his  bore  the  driller 
invariably  crashed  through  the  roof  of  an  underground 
reservoir  of  petroleum  gas.  Ignorant  of  the  value  of  this 
product,  though  painfully  aware  of  its  danger  if  allowed 
to  break  away  and  to  get  beyond  control,  the  early  seekers 
for  oil  led  this  gas  through  a  pipe  to  a  point  some  distance 
away.  There  the  flow  from  the  open  end  was  ignited  and 
the  gas  allowed  to  burn  merrily  in  the  open  air.  The 
driller  knew  no  peace  of  mind  until  the  flame  flickered  and 
expired  as  a  result  of  the  exhaustion  of  the  subterranean 
gasometer.  Then,  and  not  until,  he  could  resume  his  boring 
for  the  precious  liquid  with  complacency. 

But  with  passing  years  and  progress  came  enlighten- 
ment. The  gas  is  no  longer  wasted  ;  it  is  trapped.  In 
some  instances  it  is  led  through   piping  for  hundreds  of 


16  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

miles  to  feed  hungry  furnaces  engaged  in  the  making  of 
steel  and  other  products.  The  earth  is  even  being  drilled, 
not  for  petroleum,  but  for  its  huge  supplies  of  natural  gas, 
and  the  huge  reservoirs  thus  discovered  are  being  harnessed 
to  the  thousand  wheels  of  industry.  We  even  find  trains 
fitted  with  cylinders  carrying  natural  gas  stored  under 
high  pressure  to  furnish  light  for  the  convenience  of 
passengers,  and  to  enable  dainty  meals  to  be  cooked  in  the 
kitchens  of  the  dining-cars. 

The  oil  refineries,  upon  receiving  the  crude  petroleum, 
set  out  to  recover  as  much  paraffin  as  they  could.  This 
was  the  primary  product,  because  a  brilliant  British  chemist, 
Young,  had  discovered  how  to  distil  paraffin  from  petroleum 
for  lighting,  heating,  and  cooking.  It  represented  a  huge 
advance  upon  the  lamp  dependent  upon  whale  oil  and  the 
tallow  dip.  But  before  the  refiners  could  reach  the  paraffin 
they  were  called  upon  to  wrestle  with  a  lighter  spirit  which 
sorely  harassed  and  perplexed  them.  It  was  extremely 
volatile,  and  highly  inflammable — even  explosive  in  the 
vapour  form  when  mixed  with  air — and  accordingly  was 
construed  into  a  menace  to  the  refinery.  It  was  carefully 
drawn  off  and  dumped  into  large  pits,  where  it  was  burned 
merely  to  get  rid  of  it.  Its  commercial  value  was  set  down 
as  nil.  A  certain  quantity  was  used  by  laundries  and  dry- 
cleaners  because  of  its  striking  cleansing  qualities,  but  it 
was  used  sparingly  and  cautiously  owing  to  its  dangerous 
character.  It  could  be  purchased  only  with  difficulty,  and 
in  small  quantities  by  the  members  of  the  public,  the  re- 
tailers for  the  most  part  being  chemists  and  druggists.  If 
one  were  glib  of  tongue  and  a  master  of  the  persuasive  art, 
one  might  succeed  in  obtaining  as  much  as  half-a-pint  in 
a  single  purchase. 

Suddenly  a  creative  mind  evolved  the  high-speed  internal 
combustion  engine,  which  heralded  the  coming  of  the  motor- 
car, the  submarine,  and  more  recently  the  aeroplane  and 
airship.  The  volatile  spirit  which  hitherto  had  been  spurned 
and  burned  wastefully  by  the  refineries  was  immediately 
discovered  to  be  invested  with  a  value  which  had  heretofore 
escaped  attention.  It  formed  the  ideal  fuel  for  the  new 
motor.  Forthwith  wanton  destruction  of  the  volatile  spirit 
was  abandoned.  Every  drop  was  carefully  collected,  and, 
as  time  went  on  and  the  demand  for  the  light  liquid  fuel 


WASTE  17 

increased,  the  refiners  put  forth  greater  effort  to  wring  every 
possible  dram  of  petrol  from  the  crude  petroleum.  Paraffin, 
which  had  hitherto  been  regarded  as  the  staple,  was  ignored. 
It  even  dropped  in  commercial  estimation  as  a  by-product 
and  became  a  drug  on  the  market,  although,  fortunately, 
the  refineries  hesitated  from  repeating  the  practice  they 
had  honoured  in  regard  to  petrol — summary  destruction 
by  fire. 

So  insistent  and  overwhelming  has  grown  the  demand 
for  petrol  that  the  producers  are  hard  put  to  it  to  keep  pace 
with  the  requirements.  A  petroleum  boom  has  reverberated 
around  the  world,  eclipsing  in  intensity  any  stampede 
identified  with  the  search  for  gold.  To  these  islands  the 
petroleum  age  has  contributed  very  little  wealth,  although 
it  has  been  responsible  for  revived  interest  in  the  exploitation 
of  our  shale — another  form  of  waste — but  to  Russia,  the 
United  States  of  America,  Mexico,  and  the  East,  where 
the  earth  reeks  with  petroleum,  it  has  brought  wealth  untold. 
It  has  completely  transformed  the  economic  outlook  of 
certain  nations,  and  in  some  instances  has  served  to  rescue 
a  country  from  bankruptcy  To  us  it  is  of  appreciable 
significance  because,  so  far,  we  have  been  compelled  to 
draw  upon  distant  sources  for  our  requirements  and  so 
have  to  contribute  to  the  national  wealth  of  others,  some 
of  whom  are  our  most  spirited  rivals  in  trade. 

In  1913  our  imports  of  petroleum  products  aggregated 
488,106,963  gallons,  valued  at  £10,856,806 — $54,284,030 — 
the  contribution  from  Greater  Britain  being  22,172,701 
gallons,  valued  at  £829,868 — $4,149,340.  Of  this  enormous 
volume  100,858,017  gallons  represented  petrol  for  our  motors 
— the  waste  product  of  forty  years  ago  at  the  refineries — 
for  which  we  had  to  pay  £3,803,397 — $19,016,985.  In  the 
year  when  mechanical  road  propulsion  was  ushered  in  petrol 
could  be  obtained  for  about  4d. — 8  cents — a  gallon  :  in 
1918  it  commanded  3s.  6d. — 84  cents — a  gallon.  An  increase 
of  over  900  per  cent,  in  value  within  approximately  35 
years  represents  no  mean  achievement  in  commercial  ex- 
pansion, but  when  it  relates  to  an  erstwhile  waste  product 
the  record  is  far  more  sensational. 

To  relate  all  the  fortunes  which  have  been  amassed 
from  the  commercialization  of  what  was  once  rejected  and 
valueless  would  require  a   volume.     Yet   it  is   a   story  of 

2 


18  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

fascinating  romance  and  one  difficult  to  parallel  in  the 
whole  realm  of  human  activity.  It  was  the  waste  energy 
of  water  which  laid  the  foundations  of  Lord  Armstrong's 
fortune  and  the  enormous  fabric  of  the  huge  firm  on  Tyne- 
side.  Sir  Hiram  Maxim  revolutionized  warfare  by  harnes- 
sing the  wasted  kick  or  recoil  to  reload  and  fire  his  machine- 
gun,  thereby  introducing  one  of  the  most  formidable  small 
arms  ever  devised  to  conduct  the  gentle  art  of  killing.  Lord 
Masham  established  a  new  industry  and  became  a  million- 
aire by  taking  the  "  chassum  "  or  silk  waste — a  refuse 
which  had  even  suffered  rejection  as  a  manure  because  it 
took  such  a  long  time  to  rot — and  utilizing  it  as  a  raw 
material  for  the  production  of  a  new  and  wonderful  range 
of  beautiful  fabrics  in  velvet  and  plush.  It  was  another 
textile  wizard,  Sir  Titus  Salt,  who  perfected  the  process  for 
turning  the  wool  sheared  from  the  back  of  a  member  of 
the  camel  family  roaming  the  heights  of  the  Andes,  and 
which  was  classed  as  sheer  rubbish,  into  the  soft  glossy 
fabric  known  as  alpaca. 

But  one  of  the  most  powerful  expressions  of  the  possi- 
bilities attending  the  scientific  utilization  of  waste,  and  one 
which  brings  home  very  forcibly  to  us  the  national  wealth 
to  be  won  from  refuse,  is  associated  with  our  woollen  industry. 
Where  would  Yorkshire  be  without  mungo  or  shoddy  ? 
Dewsbury  has  become  the  world's  centre  for  the  disposal 
of  old  clothes  and  woollen  rags.  Here  converge  all  the 
streams  bearing  abandoned  flotsam  and  jetsam  into  the 
preparation  of  which  wool  has  entered.  There  is  scarcely 
anything  more  disreputable,  if  not  actually  repellent, 
than  a  sack  of  woollen  rags.  But  pass  that  waste  through 
suitable  machines  and  a  wonderful  transformation  in 
attractiveness,  colouring,  and  design,  as  well  as  texture, 
is  accomplished. 

Wool  can  never  be  worn  out.  That  is  an  indisputable 
axiom  in  woollen  circles.  It  does  not  matter  how  many 
years  ago  the  textile  may  first  have  been  prepared,  nor  the 
many  and  varied  vicissitudes  through  which  it  may  have 
passed  ;  it  can  be  used  over  and  over  again.  It  may  have 
travelled  through  the  machines  forty  or  fifty  times,  may 
have  graced  the  form  of  a  hundred  persons,  may  have  clothed 
a  scarecrow  or  have  been  retrieved  from  a  river  in  the  course 
of  its  career.     True,  with  each  new  lease  of  life  it  suffers 


WASTE  19 

a  certain  depreciation,  but  blended  with  new  wool  or  cotton 
it  is  effectively  revived.  The  history  of  a  fibre  of  wool  would 
be  distinctly  romantic  and  thrilling  could  it  be  but  written, 
and  even  the  wildest  flights  of  imagination  would  be  unable 
to  rival  stern  fact.  It  is  the  ability  to  work  and  re-work 
up  woollen  textile  for  an  indefinite  period  which  has  con- 
tributed to  the  prosperity  of  Yorkshire,  and  which  has 
enabled  this  country  to  build  up  an  export  trade  in  this 
commodity  exceeding  £500,000,000 — $2,500,000,000 — a  year 
in  value. 

An  impressively  successful,  yet  sinister,  utilization  of 
waste  was  brought  to  light  during  the  war.  In  their  metho- 
dical investigation  of  the  dye-stuffs  problem  the  Germans 
found  it  necessary  to  prepare  a  certain  substance  which 
constitutes  the  starting-point  for  the  production  of  one 
of  their  leading  products.  Toluol,  a  by-product  from  the 
manufacture  of  gas,  is  taken  and  treated  with  nitric  acid. 
Now  orthonitrotoluol  is  the  specific  product  in  request, 
but  nitrification  produces  two  substances,  orthonitrotoluol 
and  paranitrotoluol,  respectively.  The  last-named  is  of 
no  use  whatever,  but  its  production  has  to  be  suffered, 
though,  unfortunately,  the  yield  thereof  is  twice  that  of 
the  essential  article.  So  far  as  the  industrial  pursuit  in 
question  is  concerned  the  paranitrotoluol  represented  a  sheer 
waste. 

Now  the  German,  when  he  encounters  a  waste,  does 
not  throw  it  away  or  allow  it  to  remain  an  incubus.  Satur- 
ated with  the  principle  that  the  residue  from  one  process 
merely  represents  so  much  raw  material  for  another  line 
of  endeavour,  he  at  once  sets  to  work  to  attempt  to  discover 
some  use  for  a  refuse.  Manufacturers  in  other  countries 
were  equally  troubled  with  the  accumulations  of  paranitro- 
toluol because  the  production  of  the  two  substances  as  a 
result  of  nitrifying  toluol  is  strictly  in  accordance  with 
constitutional  chemical  law.  They  also  learned  that  the 
Germans  had  succeeded  in  turning  it  to  advantage.  What 
was  this  application  ?  This  was  the  poser.  They  sought 
enlightenment  in  this  direction  but  found  that  the  German 
was  resolutely  keeping  his  discovery  to  himself. 

Other  countries  remained  in  ignorance  until  the  Germans 
set  out  to  materialize  their  fantastic  dream  of  world-wide 
domination.     When  their  hordes  burst   upon  the  frontier 


20  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

defences  of  Belgium,  and  their  bombardment  played  sad 
havoc  with  the  fortifications  of  Liege  and  Namur,  the  world 
marvelled.  The  intense  destructive  power  of  the  high 
explosive  which  was  being  used  was  something  new  to 
warfare.  It  was  promptly  investigated,  and  then  the  use 
for  the  paranitrotoluol,  the  apparent  incubus  of  the  dye- 
stuffs-producing  factories,  was  discovered.  It  was  being 
turned  into  the  destructive  agent  familiarly  known  as  T.N.T., 
or  trinitrotoluol,  to  give  the  explosive  its  true  chemical 
designation. 

It  is  perfectly  obvious,  from  what  has  been  related, 
that,  if  one  will  only  devote  sufficient  energy  and  fertility 
of  thought  to  the  study  of  so-called  rubbish  and  its  pro- 
perties, incalculable  economic  and  financial  benefits  must 
redound  to  the  individual.  And  as  with  individuals  so 
with  nations.  The  British  race  is  generally  assailed  as  being 
woefully  improvident  and  remiss  in  the  profitable  exploit- 
ation of  waste,  but  it  errs  in  excellent  company.  The 
United  States  of  America  are  probably  far  more  guilty  in 
this  respect.  According  to  the  statement  of  the  American 
Food  Administrator  the  inhabitants  of  24  cities  between 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans,  by  ignoring  the  latent 
wealth  contained  in  their  garbage  barrels,  are  throwing 
away  sufficient  grease  and  fat  during  the  year  to  produce 
30.000,000  one-pound  bars  of  soap.  On  the  other  hand, 
300  small  towns,  by  pursuing  thrift  in  this  direction,  are 
producing  sufficient  food  from  the  disposal  of  their  swill 
to  yield  50,000,000  additional  pounds  of  pork  worth 
£1,600,000  ($8,000,000)  a  year,  although  in  this  instance 
the  results  might  be  doubled  by  the  practice  of  more 
perfect  methods.  Another  350  towns,  which  disdain  the 
value  of  their  swill-tubs,  are  throwing  away  approxi- 
mately £2,000,000  ($10,000,000)  a  year  because  they  are 
not  inclined  to  take  a  little  trouble  concerning  the  disposal 
of  their  garbage. 

Contrast  the  methods  obtaining  in  the  United  States 
and  Britain  with  those  peculiar  to  France.  That  picturesque 
figure  of  French  civic  life,  the  chiffonnier,  is  the  perennial 
butt  of  humorists  and  cartoonists.  But  he  is  a  powerful 
economic  factor.  Through  his  efforts  millions  sterling  are 
saved  annually  to  the  French  nation.  The  rag-picker  and 
his  colleagues  "  specializing  "  in  other  forms  of  spoil  lurking 


WASTE  21 

in  the  ash-barrel  pursue  their  work  so  diligently  as  to  secure 
everything,  except  vegetable  matter,  which  is  capable  of 
being  worked  up  into  other  forms  by  the  exercise  of  brains 
and  commercial  enterprise.  It  may  not  seem  a  savoury 
occupation  to  rake  over  the  repulsive  assorted  contents 
of  the  household  dust-bin,  but  it  serves  to  swell,  to  an  appre- 
ciable degree,  the  streams  of  raw  materials  flowing  into  the 
insatiable  maws  of  industry.  What  is  left  after  these 
industrious  toilers  have  completed  their  work  finds  its  way 
to  the  dust-destructor  to  assist  in  the  raising  of  steam  to 
drive  engines  and  generators  for  the  supply  of  electricity. 

The  diligent  exploitation  of  waste  exercises  a  far-reaching 
influence  upon  the  wealth  of  nations.  If  we  were  to  turn 
the  whole  of  our  residues,  both  industrial  and  domestic, 
to  the  utmost  account  we  should  be  able  to  cut  down  our 
annual  expenditure  upon  purchases  from  abroad  to  a  very 
startling  degree.  Every  ton  of  import  saved  not  only 
represents  the  retention  of  so  much  sterling  in  our  pocket, 
but  releases  a  ton  of  shipping  for  the  movement  of  other 
material,  not  necessarily  to  these  islands,  but  between 
other  countries,  since  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  we 
derive  an  appreciable  proportion  of  our  national  income 
from  carrying  the  trade  of  the  world.  If  we  were  to  salvage 
all  the  rags  entering  into  the  domestic  refuse  of  the  nation 
we  could  reduce  our  imports  of  wool  during  the  year  by 
19,000  tons,  and  allow  15,000  tons  of  shipping  space  to  be 
devoted  to  other  purposes.  From  the  yield  of  cotton  refuse 
derived  from  the  dust-bins  we  could  turn  out  16,000  tons 
of  new  paper.  If  we  were  to  become  miserly  in  our  collection 
of  waste-paper  and  to  turn  it  back  into  the  mills,  we  could 
secure  a  further  44,000  tons  of  new  paper  during  the  year 
and  save  the  import  of  75,000  tons  of  wet  pulp  from  Scan- 
dinavia. Were  all  our  old  tins  handed  over  to  the  steel- 
makers we  could  reproduce  from  this  raw  material  74,000 
tons  of  new  steel  and  dispense  with  148,000  tons  of  Spanish 
ore.  The  steel  obtainable  from  the  re-smelting  of  old  tins 
alone  would  furnish  sufficient  material  to  construct  approxi- 
mately forty  3,000-ton  vessels. 

Fortunately,  a  change  in  the  national  habits  of  extra- 
vagance is  to  be  recorded.  The  increased  cost  of  living  is 
compelling  more  sparing  use  of  the  necessaries  of  life  and 
industry.     The  incontrovertible  truth  of  the  axiom  "  Waste 


22  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

not  ;  want  not,"  although  it  may  sound  rather  trite,  has 
been  brought  home  to  us.  But  the  complete  salvage  of 
waste  is  probably  impossible  of  realization  so  long  as  the 
kitchen  stove  and  furnace  remain.  Fire  is  an  excellent 
destructive  agency,  but  is  far  too  handy  for  the  removal 
from  sight,  if  not  from  memory,  of  the  multitude  of  odds 
and  ends  incidental  to  our  complex  social  and  industrial 
existence.  With  the  coming  of  the  electric  age,  and  the 
supersession  of  kitchen  stoves  and  factor}^  furnaces  by 
cheap  current,  the  facilities  for  the  read}^  destruction  of 
what  is  really  valuable  raw  material  under  the  guise  of 
waste  will  be  removed.  In  the  interests  of  economy  and 
wealth,  both  individual  and  national,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that 
the  coming  of  the  electric  era  may  not  be  unduly  delayed. 


CHAPTER   II 

THE   GERMAN   CONQUEST   OF   WASTE 

Waste  creates  wealth.  If  one  desire  a  convincing  illus- 
tration of  the  truth  of  this  latter-day  precept  one  has  only 
to  cross  the  North  Sea.  It  is  generally  conceded  that,  at 
the  dawn  of  the  second  decade  of  the  twentieth  century, 
the  Teutonic  Empire  had  the  world  at  its  feet  so  far  as 
commerce  is  concerned.  There  is  little  reason  to  doubt  but 
that  Germany  would  have  become  the  super-trading  nation 
of  the  world  within  a  few  more  years  had  not  territorial 
ambition  and  the  lust  for  military  conquest  have  blinded 
Reason. 

The  pre-war  wealth  of  the  country,  that  is  as  it  stood  in 
1914,  is  universally  acknowledged.  But  what  is  not  so 
generally  appreciated  is  the  circumstance  that,  to  a  very 
marked  degree,  this  wealth  was  secured  as  a  result  of  the 
scientific  utilization  of  waste.  In  every  ramification  of 
industrial  and  social  activity  thrift,  system,  and  organiza- 
tion were  conspicuous.  Circumstances  were  primarily 
responsible  for  the  pursuance  of  such  a  policy.  Germany 
is  essentially  an  agricultural  country.  She  was  dependent 
upon  outside  sources  of  supply  for  many  of  the  staple  raw 
materials  wherewith  to  keep  her  mills  and  factories  going. 
Consequently  she  was  compelled  to  rely  for  her  existence 
upon  the  margin  between  buying  and  selling,  and  she 
naturally  strove  to  render  this  difference  as  pronounced  as 
possible  by  turning  her  purchases  to  the  maximum  advan- 
tage. Even  in  the  exploitation  of  her  natural  resources 
this  tendency  was  manifest,  but  little  wastage  being  suffered. 

The     Germans     went     farther.     From     the    experience 

amassed  in  the  development  of  wealth  from  waste  products 

they   were   quite   prepared   to   buy   residues   from   foreign 

competitors,  to  ship  them  to  the  Homeland,  and  there  to 

•23 


24  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

work  them  up.  The  country  was  quite  prepared  to  act 
as  a  marine  store  upon  a  big  scale,  because  thereby  it  was 
able  to  acquire  valuable  potential  raw  materials  for  infinitesi- 
mal expense.  The  vending  countries,  as  a  rule,  were  quite 
ready  to  dispose  of  their  waste  at  a  trifling  figure,  and  often 
more  unfeignedly  glad  to  be  rid  of  what  they  considered 
to  be  a  nuisance,  comforting  themselves  with  the  thought 
that  they  had  been  able  to  drive  good  bargains  from  the 
sale  of  what  was  useless  to  themselves. 

The  Teuton  buyers  were  equally  satisfied.  They  gene- 
rally succeeded  in  buying  useful  material  at  an  absurdly  low 
figure.  Very  often  the  heaviest  item  of  expense  in  such 
transactions  was  the  cost  of  freighting  the  waste  to  Germany, 
but  here  they  were  able  to  reap  distinct  advantages  from 
preferential  rates.  However,  such  expenditure  was  speedily 
recouped  because  the  articles  contrived  from  the  erstwhile 
rubbish  commanded  a  ready  sale  and  at  attractive  prices. 
It  was  by  no  means  uncommon  for  the  Germans  to  sell 
the  commercial  products  wrought  from  the  waste  back  to 
the  very  firms  whence  the  last-named  had  been  acquired, 
and  at  a  considerably  enhanced  figure. 

The  strangest  feature  about  these  transactions  was  the 
keenness  with  which  they  were  conducted.  The  countries 
concerned  were  far  readier  to  resort  to  such  commercial 
tactics  than  to  bestir  themselves  to  turn  their  wastes  to 
similar  account,  although  it  must  be  admitted  that  the 
wily  Teutons,  recognizing  the  advantage  they  held,  were 
disposed  to  invest  their  processes  for  translating  refuse  into 
commodities  with  distinct  secrecy.  They  played  a  gigantic 
game  of  bluff  and  their  temerity  met  with  success.  If  the 
victims  had  only  reflected  they  would  have  realized  that 
such  activity  was  quite  possible  to  themselves  ;  that 
such  enterprise  would  have  provided  additional  avenues 
for  the  employment  of  their  own  citizens,  and  would  have 
contributed  materially  to  their  individual  commercial  wealth. 

The  Germans  ransacked  the  world  for  wastes.  For 
instance,  who  but  the  Teuton  would  have  gone  to  stone- 
fruit  packers  on  the  other  side  of  the  world  and  have  offered 
to  purchase  the  stones  which  the  preservers  discarded 
and  burned  under  the  factory  boilers  to  assist  in  raising 
steam  ?  But  the  purchasing  German  firm  was  astute. 
The  stones  were  sent  home  and  the  packers    laughed    at 


GERMAN   CONQUEST  OF  WASTE  25 

the  idea  of  moving  such  refuse  half-way  round  the  world. 
The  buyers  suffered  the  taunts  in  silence.  Upon  reaching 
the  German  factories  the  fruit- stones  were  cracked  and 
the  nuts  extracted.  These  were  submitted  to  treat- 
ment to  yield  a  wide  range  of  oils,  some  of  which  were  turned 
into  essences  and  liqueurs.  Then  the  Germans  dispatched 
much  of  this  reclaimed  produce  back  to  the  territory  where 
the  stones  were  purchased,  where  it  was  bought  with 
avidity,  and  at  inordinately  high  prices.  Little  did  the 
packers  think  that  they  were  buying  back  their  own  refuse 
in  another  and  useful  form  and  were  being  compelled  to  pay 
heavily  for  the  privilege  ! 

The  fibrous  residue,  remaining  after  the  expression  of 
the  oil,  was  turned  into  cattle-food,  much  of  which  also 
was  sold  in  foreign  markets.  The  nut-shells  were  turned 
into  carbon  or  charcoal,  which,  from  its  peculiar  quality 
and  high  grade,  was  eminently  adapted  to  laboratory  and 
other  uses.  We  were  forced  to  realize  that  such  shells 
possess  distinct  virtues,  for  did  we  not  encourage  one  and 
all  to  save  the  stones  from  fruit  to  furnish  the  requisite 
absorbent  material  with  which  to  equip  the  gas-masks 
served  to  our  soldiers  to  combat  the  evils  of  the  poison- 
gas  used  in  the  war  !  In  this  connection  we  were  completely 
forestalled  by  the  enemy.  Undoubtedly  he  was  encouraged 
to  launch  such  a  devilish  weapon  from  his  discovery  of  a 
complete  antidote  to  such  aggressive  measures  in  the  charcoal 
made  from  the  spurned  nut-shells  accruing  to  the  fruit- 
packing  country  on  the  other  side  of  the  globe. 

Sawdust  accumulates  in  Germany  as  it  does  in  every 
country  where  working  in  wood  is  practised  extensively. 
But  there  the  waste  is  not  turned  into  rivers  or  burned  in 
destructors  as  in  the  United  States  and  Canada.  Nor  is  it 
dumped  in  unsightly  heaps  to  rot  slowly,  used  to  bed-down 
stock,  or  distributed  over  the  floors  of  butchers'  shops  and 
public-houses  as  in  these  islands. 

A  firm  conceived  the  idea  of  turning  this  residue  to 
account  in  the  fabrication  of  a  special  form  of  plastic  floor- 
covering.  It  was  mixed  with  magnesium  chloride  to  form 
a  cement  to  be  applied  somewhat  after  the  manner  of 
asphalt,  the  whole  of  the  area  thus  being  covered  and 
finished  off  with  suitable  tools  to  yield  a  smooth,  level,  and 
attractive  finish. 


26  MILLIONS   FROM   WASTE 

However,  it  was  speedily  discovered  that  this  floor- 
covering  suffered  from  one  disability.  Magnesium  chloride 
is  hygroscopic  :  it  absorbs  water,  even  moisture  from  the 
atmosphere,  very  readily.  Consequently  it  became  soft 
and  damp  in  humid  and  wet  weather.  Otherwise  it  left 
nothing  to  be  desired,  being  comfortable  to  the  tread,  silent, 
and  warm. 

The  German  is  nothing  if  not  thorough.  He  does  not 
hesitate  to  harness  science  to  the  wheels  of  industry  when 
the  occasion  so  demands.  He  realized  that  to  utilize  saw- 
dust as  a  floor-covering  it  would  be  necessary  to  follow 
strict  scientific  lines.  Accordingly  the  chemist  was  called 
in.  He,  as  a  result  of  prolonged  investigations  and  numerous 
tests,  succeeded  in  overcoming  the  outstanding  inherent 
defect  of  the  sawdust  paving,  and  at  the  same  time  empha- 
sized that  control  of  the  proportions  of  sawdust  and  mag- 
nesium chloride  was  essential  owing  to  the  first-named 
varying  so  widely  in  its  characteristics  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  wood  from  which  it  is  derived.  Consequently 
the  manufacture  of  this  floor-covering  is  now  supervised 
by  the  chemist,  and  the  hygroscopic  difficulty  has  been 
effectively  overcome.  The  material  has  achieved  a  distinct 
vogue,  not  only  in  Germany,  but  in  other  countries.  It 
is  extremely  effective  and  is  relatively  inexpensive — the 
cost  averages  from  5  to  7  shillings  ($1.25  to  $1.75)  per  square 
yard — bearing  in  mind  its  durable  and  wearing  qualities. 
Incidentally  the  country  has  found  a  highly  profitable 
outlet  for  its  accumulations  of  sawdust. 

The  world's  consumption  of  tin-plate  has  risen  to  enor- 
mous proportions,  the  extraordinary  expansion  of  the  tinned 
or  canned  food  industry  being  responsible  for  this  develop- 
ment. Thousands  of  tons  of  steel  are  absorbed  in  the 
manufacture  of  these  containers,  as  well  as  hundreds  of 
tons  of  tki  and  solder.  Upon  the  removal  of  the  contents 
the  tins  are  generally  thrown  away,  especially  by  the  prodigal 
nations.  This  wastage  became  so  flagrant  as  to  arouse 
the  severe  condemnation  of  economists  in  every  country, 
but  these  would-be  apostles  found  it  well-nigh  hopeless  to 
persuade  their  compatriots  to  endeavour  to  exploit  the 
empty  tins.  Here  and  there  spasmodic  efforts  were  made 
upon  a  limited  scale  to  recover  the  solder,  tin,  and  steel- 
plate  for  further  use,  but  the  problem  did  not  prove  so 
easy  of  solution  as  it  had  appeared. 


GERMAN   CONQUEST   OF  WASTE  27 

The  bulk  of  the  vessel  constituted  a  formidable  obstacle, 
while  its  susceptibility  to  the  ravages  of  rust  was  also  dis- 
covered to  be  a  distinct  drawback.  In  this  country  the 
general  practice  has  been  to  crush  the  tins  flat  and  to  feed 
them  into  the  blast  furnaces  as  scrap,  but  in  this  process 
the  tin  vanishes  up  the  chimney,  while  the  solder  is  also 
lost,  though  the  steel-plate,  which  forms  99  per  cent,  of  the 
composition  of  the  vessel,  becomes  available  as  raw  material. 
Nevertheless,  although  the  quantity  of  tin  used  is  trifling, 
representing  only  approximately  one  per  cent.,  the  Germans 
considered  it  to  be  quite  worthy  of  recovery,  especially  when 
tin  commanded  from  £150  to  £200 — $750  to  $1,000 — 
per  ton. 

The  Teuton  attacked  the  tin-recovery  problem  more 
energetically  than  his  colleagues  in  other  countries  and  appar- 
ently achieved  success,  although  the  degree  of  triumph 
recorded  in  this  connection  has  always  remained  a  matter 
for  considerable  speculation.  Be  that  as  it  may  the  German 
interests  concerned  were  quite  prepared  to  purchase  empty 
British  tins  and  to  ship  them  across  the  North  Sea  to  be 
treated  in  their  home  plants.  From  this  fact  it  is  only 
logical  to  assume  that  they  had  found  practical  ways  and 
means  to  consummate  the  desired  end,  otherwise  they 
would  scarcely  have  gone  to  the  lengths  of  organizing  a 
complete  collecting  system  in  these  islands,  and  of  incurring 
the  freightage  charges,  although  the  waste  was  carried  at 
a  low  figure.  With  the  outbreak  of  war,  and  the  rise  in 
the  price  of  tin  to  approximately  £300  ($1,500)  a  ton,  we 
were  forced  to  inquire  into  the  possibilities  of  recovering 
the  tin  and  solder  from  this  refuse,  and  by  energetic  action 
were  able  to  equal,  if  not  to  surpass,  German  effort,  so  that 
to-day  de-tinning  may  be  said  to  represent  an  established 
British  industry. 

The  fact  that  Germany  was  compelled  to  depend  exten- 
sively upon  outside  sources  for  supplies  of  raw  materials 
prompted  the  theory  in  many  quarters  that,  once  the  British 
blockade  was  firmly  established,  surrender  must  follow 
quickly  from  economic  pressure.  But  the  enemy  displayed 
his  ability  to  hold  out  for  a  far  longer  period  than  we  had 
anticipated.  Why  ?  Simply  because  the  moment  he  saw 
himself  isolated  from  his  outside  sources  of  supply  he  inau- 
gurated a  more  rigid  system  for  the  compulsory  collection, 


28  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

segregation  and  utilization  of  his  domestic  waste.  We 
know  to-day  how  sternly  these  orders  were  enforced,  and 
how  completely  the  country  was  covered  by  official  organ- 
izations established  to  this  end. 

To  ensure  that  nothing  of  industrial  value  should  be 
lost  a  collecting  centre  was  established  in  every  village  and 
hamlet,  the  local  chief  magistrate  being  vested  with  wide 
powers  for  the  conduct  of  the  work  placed  in  his  charge. 
It  was  his  duty  to  see  that  everything  and  anything  capable 
of  further  exploitation  was  retrieved.  The  inhabitants 
were  notified  by  public  placard  that  they  must  bring  and 
surrender  their  accumulations  of  refuse  to  the  collecting 
centre  at  specific  intervals,  according  to  the  available 
machinery  and  the  population  of  the  village.  The  head 
of  every  family  or  household  was  held  personally  responsible 
for  the  preservation  of  anything  capable  of  further  use 
and  residue  incurred  within  his  home.  Any  dereliction  in 
this  respect,  or  infraction  of  the  official  commands,  was 
subject  to  punishment  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
offence. 

The  materials  which  were  in  greatest  demand  were  duly 
set  forth.  They  included  such  junk  as  old  metal  of  every 
description,  from  useless  cooking  utensils  to  fragments  of 
wire,  worn-out  tools,  abandoned  implements  and  nails 
recovered  from  packing  cases  :  textile  odds  and  ends  no 
matter  how  old  and  threadbare  from  the  heterogeneous 
contents  of  the  rag-bag  to  discarded  suits,  dresses,  hosiery, 
frills,  ribbon,  and  hats :  and  kitchen  waste  in  infinite 
variety.  The  metal  was  turned  over  to  the  munition  plants, 
the  textile  waste  to  the  woollen,  paper,  and  other  mills, 
while  the  organic  waste  was  distributed  throughout  the 
countryside  for  feeding  stock  after  the  fats  and  greases 
had  been  extracted. 

In  the  towns  and  cities  similar  organizations  were 
created,  only  in  these  instances  the  regulations  were  some- 
what more  stringent.  All  and  every  kind  of  kitchen  waste 
had  to  be  surrendered  daily.  In  the  leading  cities  it  was 
incumbent  upon  every  householder  to  have  his  accumulation 
of  refuse  from  the  previous  day  ready  for  the  arrival  of 
the  official  collecting  cart.  As  this  passed  through  the 
street  in  which  he  resided  he  had  to  carry  and  discharge 
his  consignment   of  refuse  into   the   vehicle.     In   some  in- 


GERMAN   CONQUEST   OF   WASTE  29 

stances,  as  in  Berlin,  this  task  involved  early  rising 
because  the  collecting  duty  had  to  be  completed  before 
7  a.m. 

In  the  towns  and  cities  the  waste  was  most  rigorously 
controlled.  It  was  criminal  for  the  housewife  or  maid  to 
permit  the  grease  clinging  to  the  plates  and  dishes  from 
the  table  to  escape  down  the  sink.  This  fat  had  to  be 
emptied  into  a  special  pail,  and  with  the  minimum  of  water. 
Terse  instructions  as  to  how  this  could  be  done  to  the  satis- 
faction of  the  authorities  were  issued.  It  would  seem  as 
if  the  salvage  of  grease  were  carried  to  an  absurdly  fine 
degree,  but  in  view  of  the  prevailing  circumstances  the 
authorities  were  justified  in  compelling  the  recovery  of  such 
an  apparently  insignificant  trifle  as  a  dab  or  two  of  grease 
upon  a  dinner-plate,  since  it  was  found  that  the  daily  yield 
of  fat  from  the  average  town  was  about  8,000  pounds. 
Truly  the  enemy  may  be  said  to  have  fully  realized  the 
truth  that  "  many  a  mickle  makes  a  muckle." 

But  the  inhabitants,  though  forced  to  gather  all  their 
fat  with  such  scrupulous  care  and  to  surrender  it  to  the 
authorities,  were  enabled  to  receive  a  certain  proportion 
back  again — by  paying  for  it — in  the  form  of  soap.  The 
fat  was  secured  in  order  to  extract  its  glycerine  content 
for  the  production  of  explosives,  a  certain  quantity  being 
set  on  one  side  to  be  turned  into  a  lubricating  grease  to 
keep  the  oil-starved  mammoth  machine  plants  of  the  country 
going.  The  residue  remaining  after  the  extraction  of  the 
glycerine  was  turned  into  soap. 

Skins,  rags,  bones,  feathers,  hair,  rubber-scrap  and 
other  articles  too  numerous  to  specify  were  collected  by 
this  machinery.  All  waste  arising  in  the  slaughter  of 
animals  for  food  was  carefully  gathered.  Special  factories 
were  reserved  for  treating  the  carcases  of  animals  which 
had  succumbed  from  old  age,  accident,  disease  and  other 
causes.  A  farmer  was  not  even  permitted  to  bury  the 
corpse  of  a  dog.  The  authorities  alone  were  vested  with 
the  power  to  handle  deceased  animals.  These  were  thrown 
into  suitably  designed  vessels,  sufficiently  large  in  some 
instances  to  receive  a  horse  intact,  which  were  then  hermeti- 
cally sealed  to  prevent  the  escape  of  noisome  gases.  Cooking 
was  pursued  to  secure  the  fats  and  other  products  arising 
from  the  destructive  distillation  of  the  dead  animal.     The 


30  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

gases  which  were  thrown  off  during  the  process  were  care- 
fully collected,  condensed  to  shed  any  foreign  particles 
which  happened  to  be  in  suspension,  and  then  fed  to  the 
furnaces  to  assist  in  raising  the  heat  required  for  cooking. 
By  the  time  the  distillation  process  had  been  completed 
only  a  minute  quantity  of  fibrous  residue  remained  together 
with  the  solid  particles  of  bones.  This  mass  was  ground 
up  and  converted  into  chemical  manure. 

The  shortage  of  oil  was  most  keenly  felt  because  this 
affected  every  range  of  the  industrial  and  domestic  life. 
Perhaps  we  do  not  generally  realize  the  fact  that  all  machinery 
would  be  condemned  to  immobility  were  lubricating  oil 
supplies  to  be  cut  off.  But  it  was  not  only  imperative  to 
keep  the  war  material  factories,  trains,  trams,  motor  vehicles, 
electric  generating  stations  and  a  host  of  other  plants  in 
operation.  Fats  were  in  demand  for  a  more  vital  issue — 
the  table.  To  meet  the  shortage  of  butter,  vegetable  or 
nut-oil  and  animal  margarine,  fats  and  greases  were  in 
urgent  request. 

To  mitigate  the  deficiency  in  this  direction  as  far  as 
possible  a  further  rigorous  enactment  was  put  into  force. 
It  was  rendered  a  penal  offence  to  throw  away  the  kernels 
of  plums,  peaches,  apricots,  prunes,  cherries  and  other  stone 
fruits  or  even  the  pips  of  apples  and  pears.  One  and  all  had 
to  be  carefully  husbanded  and  surrendered  to  the  authorities 
at  special  collecting  stations,  which,  for  the  most  part,  were 
established  in  schools  and  municipal  buildings.  Juvenile 
effort  and  enthusiasm  were  fired.  The  school  children  were 
urged  to  maintain  an  alert  eye  for  such  raw  material  and 
were  also  encouraged  to  gather  acorns,  horse-chestnuts, 
and  beech-nuts.  The  yield  of  such  residues  must  have 
been  enormous  in  the  aggregate.  One  city  alone  reported 
the  production  of  over  300,000  pounds  of  oil  during  a  single 
year  from  the  various  nuts  collected  within  its  jurisdiction. 

In  the  exploitation  of  gaseous  products  the  Germans 
have  undoubtedly  displayed  remarkable  initiative.  They 
certainly  pioneered  the  use  of  the  gases  arising  from  the 
manufacture  of  pig-iron.  It  was  the  practice  to  allow  the 
gases  from  the  blast-furnaces  to  escape  into  the  atmosphere. 
Seeing  that  approximately  150,000  cubic  feet  of  gas  arise 
from  the  production  of  a  ton  of  pig-iron,  and  bearing  in 
mind  the  output  of  the  ironworks,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 


GERMAN   CONQUEST   OF  WASTE  81 

wastage  in  this  direction  must  have  represented  a  formidable 
item  during  the  twenty-four  hours. 

These  waste  gases  were  chemically  investigated,  and  it 
was  discovered  that  approximately  one-fifth  of  the  total 
volume  thrown  off  consisted  of  carbon  monoxide  gas  which 
has  a  very  high  heating  value.  Thereupon  the  Germans 
set  to  work  to  recover  this  gas,  to  clean  it  and  to  convert 
it  into  a  fuel  for  driving  suitably  designed  gas  engines. 
Years  of  labour  and  study  were  devoted  to  the  problem, 
which  was  discovered  to  be  exceedingly  abstruse.  But  the 
obstacles  were  overcome  and  the  blast-furnace  gas  engine 
made  its  appearance.  The  perfection  of  this  means  of 
utilizing  a  waste  product  has  revolutionized  a  certain  phase 
of  industry  throughout  the  world.  One  of  the  first  firms 
to  adopt  the  new  idea  was  the  Krupp  establishment,  where 
the  gas  collected  from  eight  blast-furnaces  which  hitherto 
had  been  allowed  to  escape  into  and  mingle  with  the  atmo- 
sphere was  harnessed  to  drive  fifteen  big  engines.  The 
perfection  of  this  achievement  in  waste  utilization  speedily 
became  reflected  throughout  the  country  and  was  subse- 
quently introduced  into  this  country  where  vast  strides  in 
connection  with  its  use  have  been  made. 

Much  has  been  related  concerning  the  development  of 
the  airship  in  Germany,  but  this  has  been  due  in  no  small 
measure  to  the  fact  that  it  afforded  a  profitable  outlet  for 
the  utilization  of  a  waste  product — one  absolutely  vital  to 
the  airship.  I  refer  to  hydrogen.  This  gas  is  produced  in 
enormous  quantities  at  many  German  works,  and,  for  a 
considerable  period,  had  to  be  ignored  because  no  industrial 
use  for  it  was  apparent.  A  certain  quantity  was  absorbed 
in  the  synthetic  production  of  precious  stones — topaz, 
rubies,  and  sapphires — but  this  consumption  was  trifling. 
Its  fellow,  oxygen,  remained  a  drug  on  the  market  for  many 
years  until  the  coming  of  the  oxy-acetylene  and  oxy-hydro- 
gen  method  of  welding  and  cutting  metals  came  into  popular 
favour.  Then  the  demand  for  oxygen  expanded  so  rapidly 
as  to  compel  the  laying  down  of  plants  for  the  production 
of  oxygen  from  water  by  electrolysis.  But  the  increased 
output  of  oxygen  released  still  larger  quantities  of  hydrogen 
for  which  practically  no  market  obtained. 

Consequently  the  endeavours  of  Zeppelin  and  his  con- 
temporaries    received     every     encouragement.      With    the 


82  MILLIONS   FROM   WASTE 

conquest  of  the  air  by  the  dirigible  all  anxiety  concerning 
the  profitable  use  of  hydrogen  disappeared.  At  one  large 
factory,  producing  this  gas  in  huge  volumes,  a  special  plant 
capable  of  filling  the  largest  Zeppelin  craft  was  laid  down. 
The  low  figure  at  which  hydrogen  was  obtainable  was  respon- 
sible in  no  small  measure  for  the  popularity  of  ballooning 
in  Germany  in  days  previous  to  the  coming  of  the  airship. 
The  use  of  coal-gas  for  this  purpose  was  discouraged  :  it 
was  far  more  valuable  for  fuel  applications,  whereas  the 
hydrogen  was  not  only  a  superior  lifting  agent  but  deserved 
employment  because  it  offered  a  remunerative  outlet  for 
a  waste,  and  would  assist  in  the  expansion  of  other  industries 
depending  upon  supplies  of  cheap  oxygen. 

To  encourage  the  aeronautical  use  of  hydrogen  the  firm 
in  question  embarked  upon  another  branch  of  trading.  It 
assumed  the  manufacture  of  cylinders  or  steel  bottles  for 
the  storage  of  the  gas  under  pressure — up  to  200  atmo- 
spheres. Batteries  of  these  bottles  were  maintained  in  a 
charged  condition  ready  for  instant  dispatch  to  any  part 
of  the  country  in  reply  to  a  telegraphic  or  telephonic  order. 
The  airship  pioneers  in  Germany  were  never  in  a  quandary 
concerning  the  acquisition  of  the  indispensable  gas,  nor 
were  they  faced  with  the  obligation  to  lay  down  their  own 
plants  for  its  supply  to  meet  their  individual  needs.  Hydro- 
gen was  obtainable  in  any  desired  quantity  at  the  end  of 
a  wire,  and  could  be  purchased  as  readily  as  a  truck-load 
of  coal  from  a  colliery,  while  it  was  also  available  at  an 
attractive  price. 

To  deal  fully  with  the  German  conquest  of  waste  would 
prove  wearisome.  Enterprise  and  initiative  are  apparent 
in  every  direction  from  the  use  of  recovered  solder  for  the 
production  of  toy  soldiers  to  the  wholesale  stripping  of 
motor-cars  and  cheap  clocks  for  their  integral  parts.  Little 
wonder  therefore  that  the  Germans  built  up  a  wealthy 
national  fabric.  But  probably  the  most  striking  evidence 
of  the  truth  of  the  assertion  that  waste  creates  wealth  is 
extended  by  the  coal  dye-stuffs  industry.  Sixty  years  ago 
the  tar  arising  from  the  distillation  of  coal  was  as  anathema 
to  the  engineers  concerned,  as  I  have  previously  related. 
Its  disposal  offered  a  pretty  problem.  It  was  difficult  to 
burn,  could  not  be  turned  into  streams  or  the  drains,  and 
could   not   be  allowed   to  dissipate  itself  into  the  ground. 


GERMAN  CONQUEST   OF  WASTE  33 

Any  one  who  was  prepared  to  fetch  it  could  take  it  away 
with  the  engineer's  most  profound  blessings.  It  was  waste 
in  its  most  compelling  form. 

Then  came  Perkin  with  his  discovery  of  mauve  from 
the  much-maligned  tar.  Immediately  the  former  anathema 
of  the  gas-works  became  invested  with  a  new  and  indefinable 
significance.  But  so  far  as  Britain  was  concerned  little 
progress  was  to  be  recorded.  Perkin  struggled  valiantly 
to  establish  a  new  industry  in  this  country,  only  to  suffer 
discouragement  and  ham-stringing  obstruction  for  his 
ingenuity  and  enterprise.  The  Germans  appropriated  the 
discovery  and  prosecuted  researches  and  experiments  so 
vigorously  and  whole-heartedly  as  to  build  up  one  of  the 
biggest  monopolies  known  to  industrial  effort. 

It  was  not  until  the  declaration  of  war  that  the  world 
recognized  the  extent  of  the  tribute  it  had  been  prepared 
to  pay  annually  to  the  Teuton  in  this  one  field  of  trading. 
The  sudden  interruption  of  supplies  of  colouring  agents 
derived  from  coal-tar,  and  made  in  the  huge  factories  fring- 
ing the  Rhine,  Main  and  Spree,  threatened  a  whole  host 
of  trades  from  China  to  Peru.  The  competitive  nations 
were  forced  to  turn  their  attention  to  the  mastery  of  an 
industry  which  hitherto  they  had  virtually  neglected  in 
order  to  keep  their  industries  alive,  only  to  discover  that 
they  had  much  to  learn.  In  the  United  States  thousands 
suffered  want  and  distress  from  unemployment  just  because 
the  stocks  of  dyes  had  run  out  and  their  domestic  dye- 
manufacturing  plants  were  unable  to  rise  to  the  occasion 
with  sufficient  promptitude.  Antiseptics  were  difficult  to 
procure,  especially  those  which  had  achieved  such  a  wide 
measure  of  popular  favour  during  recent  years,  because 
they  were  of  German  origin  and  were  no  longer  forthcoming. 
Amateur  photographers  were  compelled  to  pack  away  their 
cameras  and  to  forgo  the  pursuance  of  their  hobby  until 
such  time  as  the  essential  chemicals  once  more  became 
procurable  and  cheaper,  while  doctors  were  forced  to  polish 
up  long-forgotten  or  rusty  knowledge  concerning  the 
herbaceous  drugs  which  had  been  displaced  by  those  derived 
from  coal-tar. 

A  few  figures  will  serve  to  drive  home  the  stranglehold 
which  the  Germans  had  secured  upon  the  trade  of  the  world 
from  the  scientific  exploitation  of  a  waste  product.      For 

3 


34  MILLIONS  FROM  WASTE 

5,000  years  India  supplied  the  world  with  indigo  which 
was  of  vegetable  origin.  Apparently  it  held  an  unassailable 
commercial  position  and  was  held  in  particularly  high 
esteem  by  Japan  and  China.  Bauer,  the  German  chemist, 
resolved  to  solve  the  indigo  riddle  and  at  once  set  out  to 
make  it  from  coal-tar.  It  proved  a  difficult  quest  occupying 
many  years  and  involving  thousands  of  experiments.  But 
perseverance  brought  its  due  reward  although  success  was 
not  recorded  until  a  round  £1,000,000  had  been  spent. 
Then,  before  it  had  become  established  upon  the  market, 
it  suffered  eclipse  by  an  improved  process  which  had  also 
been  perfected  by  a  German. 

Within  five  years  of  its  appearance  upon  the  market 
synthetic  indigo  had  driven  its  natural  rival  from  India 
virtually  into  oblivion.  The  coal-tar  competitor  even  estab- 
lished a  firm  foothold  in  the  land  where  the  vegetable  article 
had  held  sway  for  so  many  thousand  years.  Throughout 
China  and  Japan  a  similar  story  was  related.  Indian  indigo 
was  no  longer  required.  It  was  beaten  hopelessly  in  price, 
the  factor  which  counts  in  commercial  circles,  by  the  syn- 
thetic German  article.  Of  the  artificial  colouring  materials 
imported  by  China  German  indigo  claimed  two-thirds.  A 
seventh  of  the  artificial  dyes  imported  by  Japan  was  German 
indigo,  while  one-tenth  of  the  dye-stuffs  imported  from 
Germany  into  the  United  States  was  artificial  indigo. 

As  a  result  of  less  than  fifty  years'  ceaseless  endeavour 
Germany  built  up  an  industry  specializing  in  the  manu- 
facture of  tinctorial  matters  derived  from  coal-tar,  capitalized 
at  £50,000,000 — $250,000,000 — and  had  a  list  of  2,000 
different  colours  of  a  synthetic  character  which  she  could 
supply,  one  thousand  of  which  were  in  steady  daily  demand. 
We  talk  about  the  restoration  of  the  British  coal-tar  dye- 
stuffs  industry.  The  Americans  voice  a  similar  story.  It 
is  glib.  How  far  have  we  got  ?  As  a  result  of  five  years' 
hard  work  in  Britain  we  are  in  the  position  to  market  about 
300  of  the  2,000  dye-stuffs  which  Germany  has  in  her  trade 
catalogue,  while  America  can  point  to  a  list  of  about  200. 
True,  these  represent  many  of  the  colours  which  are  in 
heaviest  request,  but  it  will  be  seen  that  we  have  a  very 
long  way  to  go  yet  before  we  can  claim  to  have  wrested 
the  industry  from  Germany,  while  in  comparison  with  the 
£50,000,000 — $250,000,000 — of     capital     invested     in     the 


GERMAN  CONQUEST  OF  WASTE  35 

Teuton  industry,  the  £5,000,000 — $25,000,000 — sunk  in 
the  British  enterprise  appears  paltry. 

To  indicate  how  industriously  and  comprehensively  the 
German  houses  have  probed  this  particular  waste  utilization 
problem  it  may  be  mentioned  that  one  of  the  leading  houses 
in  the  industry  has  taken  out  approximately  6,500  patents 
to  protect  its  activities,  while  it  turns  out  a  round  2,000 
different  products  all  made  from  coal-tar.  The  manufacture 
of  the  synthetic  drugs — aspirin,  veronal,  sulphonal,  phen- 
acetin — and  a  host  of  others  runs  into  stupendous  figures. 
That  concerning  antiseptic  preparations  as  well  as  the 
production  of  chemicals  incidental  to  photography  and 
the  leather  trades  is  equally  imposing.  It  is  estimated 
that  the  total  capital  sunk  in  German  enterprises  identified 
with  the  exploitation  of  coal-tar  ranges  between  £140,000,000 
and  £160,000,000 — $700,000,000  to  $800,000,000.  The 
return  is  exceedingly  attractive,  exceeding  £80,000,000 — 
$400,000,000 — per  annum  in  value. 

To  the  British  nation  the  magnitude  and  prosperity 
of  this  huge  traffic  in  coal-tar  derivatives  with  its  enormous 
wealth  is  particularly  galling.  Had  we  displayed  a  more 
sympathetic  attitude  towards  the  discovery  of  Perkin  and 
his  endeavours,  and  had  we  displayed  similar  initiative,  energy 
and  enterprise  the  monopoly  which  became  Germany's 
might  have  been  ours.  But  we  disdained  to  exploit  a  waste. 
We  left  it  to  a  persevering  rival,  and  became  content  to 
pay  him  tribute  for  the  utilization  of  a  fundamental  British 
discovery  and  incidentally  to  charge  his  coffers  with  the 
sinews  of  war.  Had  we  kept  the  potential  treasure-house 
of  coal-tar  to  ourselves  the  history  of  the  world  might  have 
been  written  very  differently.  It  was  the  wealth  accruing 
from  the  coal-tar  dye-stuffs  industry  which  enabled  Germany 
to  play  a  far  bigger  part  than  may  be  generally  conceived 
in  the  development  of  her  other  industries,  especially  that 
pertaining  to  the  chemical  trade,  the  dye-works  constituting 
the  nursery  where  Germany  raised  her  battalions  of  chemists. 

It  must  not  be  inferred  from  what  I  have  narrated  that 
the  German  has  a  peculiar  prerogative  in  the  mastery  of 
waste  products  :  far  from  it.  In  certain  ranges  of  industry 
we  have  eclipsed  the  Teuton  and  have  paddled  our  own 
canoe  so  far  as  blazing  the  trail  of  industrial  economy  is 
concerned.     Nor    is    the    Teuton    temperamentally    better 


36  MILLIONS   FROM   WASTE 

adapted  to  the  scientific  exploitation  of  refuse.  For  the 
most  part  he  has  been  compelled  to  investigate  these  divers 
potential  raw  materials  to  maintain  his  industrial  existence. 
Moreover,  as  may  be  readily  conceived  from  what  I  have 
related,  the  issue  has  been  forced  upon  him  by  repressive 
official  machinery  and  legislative  measures.  Discipline  in 
this  as  in  many  other  fields  has  fulfilled  its  purpose.  Cer- 
tainly it  has  reduced  every  German  scrap-heap  and  dump 
into  a  Tom  Tiddler's  ground  and  the  application  of  its 
contents  into  a  semi-automatic  operation,  or  at  least  into 
part  of  the  intricate  routine  of  industry.  It  is  to  be  hoped 
that  we  have  not  allowed  the  lesson  thus  taught  to  be  lost. 
By  now  we  should  have  learned,  and  digested  thoroughly, 
the  truth  of  the  precept  that  waste  creates  wealth — and 
commercial  power 


CHAPTER   III 

SALVAGE   FROM   THE  ARMY   SWILL-TUB 

Waste  is  one  of  the  concomitant  evils  of  a  high  civilization. 
Undoubtedly  it  is  incidental  to  the  primitive  as  well,  but 
to  a  lesser  degree.  In  this  instance,  however,  the  waste 
incurred  does  not  represent  a  complete  loss,  because  upon 
being  discarded  it  decomposes,  and  thus  continues  the  cycle 
of  Nature. 

Under  conditions  of  advanced  civilization,  where  a 
blind  worship  of  Hygiene  rules,  residues  of  an  organic  char- 
acter, from  their  very  ready  susceptibility  to  decomposition, 
are  construed  into  a  menace  of  health,  although,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  the  danger  in  this  connection  is  more  imaginary 
than  real.  Such  refuse  invariably  suffers  destruction  by 
fire  or  by  some  other  so-called  sanitary  method  involving 
either  the  total  or  almost  complete  loss  of  valuable  materials. 
We  satisfy  our  consciences,  however,  by  reflecting  that 
the  pursuance  of  such  drastic  methods  satisfies  the  faith 
of  hygiene,  although  the  community  suffers  very  pronoun- 
cedly in  pocket  in  the  long  run. 

It  is  only  when  pressure  becomes  exerted  by  some 
stupendous  cataclysm,  such  as  war,  bringing  in  its  train 
the  peril  of  a  bare  sufficiency  of  foodstuffs,  which  in  turn 
provokes  high  prices,  that  it  becomes  possible  to  combat 
the  ignorance  born  of  erroneous  enlightenment  in  regard  to 
matters  hygienic.  Under  such  conditions  the  gospel  of 
retrenchment  and  reform  may  be  preached  with  greater 
promise  of  accomplishing  success.  But  the  community, 
considered  as  a  whole,  even  in  time  of  adversity,  is  slow 
to  depart  from  accepted  practice.  Precious  time  is  lost 
in  the  application  of  the  precept  of  making  one  pound  go 
as  far  as  did  two  pounds  under  more  congenial  conditions. 

37 


38  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

It  is  a  matter  for  extreme  satisfaction,  if  not  one  of 
aggreeable  surprise,  to  learn  that,  so  far  as  Britain  is  con- 
cerned, it  was  the  army  which  blazed  the  trail  of  economy, 
particularly  in  regard  to  foodstuffs.  This  certainly  sounds 
amazing,  because  the  Military  Service  has  ever  been  regarded 
as  the  national  sink  both  for  finance  and  kind.  Never- 
theless, no  matter  how  guilty  of  squandering  it  may  have 
been  during  the  opening  months  of  the  war,  the  sins  of 
omission  were  subsequently  rectified,  to  present  a  striking 
object-lesson  to  the  civilian  section  of  the  community  in 
regard  to  the  scientific  utilization  of  what  the  soldier  was 
unable  to  consume,  and  its  ultimate  presentation  to  com- 
merce in  a  variety  of  forms  for  the  manufacture  of  other 
products  of  an  indispensable  character,  or  foodstuffs.  By 
the  practice  of  rigid  economy  along  these  lines,  and  without 
pinching  or  squeezing  the  food  allowances  to  the  soldier 
in  the  slightest  degree,  millions  sterling  a  year  were,  and 
still  are  being,  saved  to  the  tax-payer. 

When  signs  of  coming  food  stringency  for  the  civilian 
element  of  the  nation  became  manifest,  as  a  result  of  the 
relentless  submarine  campaign  inaugurated  by  the  Germans, 
combined  with  the  necessity  to  concentrate  shipping  upon 
forwarding  supplies  to  the  fighting  forces,  the  moment  was 
considered  to  be  propitious  for  putting  into  operation  a 
scheme  of  retrenchment  and  reform.  It  had  already  been 
prepared,  and  was  merely  awaiting  application.  The  only 
question  demanding  care  was  the  introduction  of  the  pro- 
posal in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  impair  the  soldier's  physique 
and  health. 

During  the  opening  days  of  the  war,  when  the  authorities 
were  faced  with  the  absorbing  problem  of  enrolling  men, 
food  wastage  assumed  enormous  proportions.  Severe 
criticisms  were  levelled  against  the  military  authorities, 
and  doubtless  the  strictures  were  more  or  less  deserved. 
But  extravagance  under  the  conditions  which  prevailed 
was  inevitable.  By  a  stroke  of  the  pen  the  effective  strength 
of  the  British  Army  was  increased  from  180,000  to  over  a 
million  men.  Lord  Kitchener's  call  proved  so  irresistible 
as  to  persuade  men  to  enlist  in  far  more  imposing  masses 
than  had  ever  been  anticipated.  The  ranks  were  swelled 
by  recruits  from  all  stations  of  life,  and  their  tastes  were 
as  diverse  as  were  the  positions  they  had  previously  held 


THE  ARMY  SWILL-TUB  39 

in  the  complex  social  scale.  The  transition  from  civilian 
to  military  life  was  too  sudden.  The  men  naturally  clam- 
oured for  subsistence  more  or  less  in  consonance  with  what 
they  had  been  for  so  long  accustomed  in  private  life.  If 
the  food  did  not  coincide  with  their  fancies  it  was  promptly 
thrown  away. 

The  difficulty  of  the  situation  was  further  aggravated 
from  the  circumstance  that  many  men  who  were  promoted 
to  commissioned  rank  were  generally  deficient  of  all  know- 
ledge pertaining  to  the  commissariat.  Consequently  it  is 
not  surprising  to  find  that  the  elaboration  of  an  economic 
reform  from  the  victualling  chaos  which  prevailed  proved 
a  stupendous  task. 

In  pre-war  days  the  disposal  of  the  waste  from  the 
soldier's  table  constituted  a  relatively  simple  task.  All 
residue  went  into  what  is  known  as  the  "  swill-tub."  This 
convenient  receptacle  did  not  completely  represent  the 
military  equivalent  of  its  civilian  counterpart,  nor  were 
the  contents  on  a  level  with  the  combined  solid  and  liquid 
odds  and  ends  of  an  organic  nature  from  the  table  of  the 
ordinary  individual.  The  military  swill-tub  was  regarded 
rather  as  a  handy  vessel  for  the  receipt  of  anything  and 
everything  which  was  no  longer  required,  or  which  did 
not  present  any  further  apparent  use  to  the  soldier. 

The  system  of  disposal  was  likewise  adapted  to  the  pre- 
vailing circumstances.  The  180,000  troops  forming  the 
standing  army  at  home  were  distributed  throughout  the 
length  and  breadth  of  the  United  Kingdom,  and  thus  became 
resolved  into  scattered  military  colonies,  not  one  of  which 
was  of  pronounced  numerical  strength.  Consequently  a 
centralized  scheme  for  dealing  with  the  waste  could  scarcely 
be  introduced  with  any  likelihood  of  proving  profitable  or 
successful  in  working.  Local  circumstances  governed  the 
issue  very  materially.  The  disposal  of  the  garbage  was 
vested  in  the  local  commanding  officer,  while  the  proceeds 
from  the  sale  of  the  swill  to  farmers  and  others  went  into 
the  regimental  funds. 

Notwithstanding  this  ostensibly  haphazard  arrangement 
it  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  farmer  was  able  to  secure 
the  spoil  from  the  local  garrison  for  a  ridiculous  figure. 
The  erstwhile  army  officer  has  often  been  assailed  for  his 
apparent  lack  of  business  acumen,  but,  in  so  far  as  the 


40  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

disposal  of  this  swill  was  concerned,  he  often  proved  a  hard 
bargainer  as  many  farmers  and  swill-buyers  will  readily 
concede.  The  higher  the  figure  the  officer  was  able  to 
realize  over  the  transaction  the  more  enhanced  was  the 
sum  with  which  he  could  swell  the  regimental  coffers.  It 
was  only  in  those  instances  where  disposal  was  attended 
with  difficulty,  or  where  accumulation  of  the  garbage  would 
have  constituted  a  distinct  menace  to  the  health  of  the 
troops,  that  low  prices  obtained. 

This  method  had  to  hold  sway  during  the  initial  rush 
to  the  colours.  But  the  moment  the  opportunity  opened 
for  an  attack  upon  this  problem  as  a  whole  it  was  accepted. 
A  new  inspection  department  was  created  by  the  Quarter- 
Master-General  which  became  known  as  the  Quarter-Master- 
General's  Services,  accompanied  by  the  appointment  of 
a  chief  inspector  who  was  charged  with  the  control  of  the 
whole  question  of  messing  and  the  profitable  exploitation 
of  the  residues  accruing  from  the  feeding  of  the  troops. 
This  department  appointed  competent  inspectors  to  conduct 
the  work  in  hand  to  a  successful  issue,  while  the  catering 
issue  became  centralized  under  an  Inspector  of  Army 
Catering. 

The  combined  scheme  of  centralization  and  decentraliza- 
tion brought  the  Chief  Inspector  into  intimate  touch  with 
the  problem  in  all  its  varied  phases,  and  the  messing  of  the 
army  as  a  whole  was  now  placed  upon  a  solid  foundation. 
The  inspectors  attached  to  the  Home  Commands  distri- 
buted throughout  the  United  Kingdom  drew  up  exhaustive 
reports  upon  the  issue  as  it  affected  their  respective  centres. 
From  the  subsequent  digestion  of  these  reports  it  was  found 
possible  to  adjust  the  supply  of  food  to  the  soldier's  actual 
requirements  and  to  effect  the  first  reduction  in  his  rations. 

The  original  issue  comprised  i  lb.  of  bread  and  f  lb.  of 
meat  per  man  per  day,  because,  in  accordance  with  the 
long-established  peace-time  procedure  of  the  army,  which 
was  continued  after  the  outbreak  of  war,  the  national  up- 
keep of  the  fighting  man  involved  the  supply  of  only  these 
two  staples.  Whatever  else  the  soldier  fancied  he  had  to 
purchase  for  himself,  in  which  direction  he  was  assisted 
by  his  messing  allowance  of  y\d..  (15  cents)  per  day.  When 
the  matter  was  investigated  it  was  learned  that  this  issue 
was  in  excess  of  the  average  man's  actual  needs.     Never- 


THE   ARMY  SWILL-TUB  41 

theless  the  full  ration  of  meat  was  generally  cooked,  the 
soldier  consuming  as  much  as  he  desired,  while  what  he  left 
over  was  relegated  to  the  swill-tub.  It  was  the  same  with 
the  bread,  the  residue  likewise  being  discarded  to  this  con- 
venient receptacle.  Consequently  the  first  move  was  to 
adapt  the  rations  to  the  soldier's  consuming  powers. 

It  was  also  discovered  that  considerable  waste  arose 
from  the  indifferent  manner  in  which  the  meat  was  pre- 
pared and  cooked.  The  tastes  of  the  men,  especially  of 
the  recruits  to  the  New  Armies,  varied  very  widely  accord- 
ing to  the  social  scales  from  which  they  had  been  drawn. 
But  while  the  men  from  the  higher  ranks  of  life  were  not 
fastidious  they  did  at  least  demand  the  skilful  and  appe- 
tizing presentation  of  their  food.  If  the  meat  were  in- 
differently cooked  it  was  simply  left  untouched  to  find  its 
way  to  the  swill-tub. 

Accordingly,  it  was  decided  to  improve  the  military 
cuisine  forthwith.  The  kitchen  service  was  severely  over- 
hauled, only  the  most  competent  and  expert  cooks  being 
retained  in  this  service.  In  pre-war  days  the  army  main- 
tained only  one  Cookery  School — at  Aldershot — from  which 
all  military  cooks  graduated.  But  as  the  armies  grew  in 
millions  this  solitary  university  proved  hopelessly  inade- 
quate. Accordingly,  cookery  schools  were  established  in 
each  command  while  a  totally  new  curriculum  was  introduced. 

The  cookery  school  became  the  "  key  "  to  the  whole 
situation.  It  not  only  became  the  nursery  where  the  auto- 
crats of  the  field-kitchen  were  raised,  but  it  was  the  hive 
in  which  many  little  wrinkles  were  learned,  where  new 
ideas  were  submitted  to  initial  test  and  practice,  to  be 
adopted  throughout  the  armies  if  they  established  their 
value,  and  where  economies  were  subjected  to  exacting 
trial  for  widespread  application  upon  issuing  unscathed 
from  the  ordeals  to  which  they  were  imposed.  The  im- 
provement in  the  personnel,  training,  and  methods  of  the 
men  in  charge  of  the  field  hotels  proved  successful  in  another 
direction.  Higher  efficiency  and  contentment  among  the 
troops  were  recorded,  for  the  simple  reason  that  a  satisfied, 
well-fed  soldier  provides  the  finest  fighting  material. 

With  improvements  in  cookery  the  contents  of  the 
swill-tub  commenced  to  dwindle  in  volume.  Less  food 
was  wasted  while  the  residue  from  the  table  similarly  de- 


42  MILLIONS  FROM  WASTE 

creased.  As  this  development  was  pursued  it  was  ultimately 
found  possible  to  reduce  the  rations  of  bread  and  meat 
still  further  without  provoking  the  slightest  discontent. 
A  third  reduction  in  the  rations  took  place  in  1917  to  the 
extent  of  an  additional  two  ounces  of  bread,  except  in  the 
case  of  soldiers  under  nineteen  years  of  age,  and  a  quarter 
of  an  ounce  of  salt  per  man  per  day.  The  cumulative  results 
of  these  economies  represented  a  direct  saving  annual  of 
£4,000,000 — $20,000,000 — in  cash  to  the  nation  in  respect 
of  the  soldiers'  rations.  In  other  words,  the  huge  armies 
of  1918  consumed  less  food  to  the  value  of  four  millions 
sterling  than  was  the  case  two  years  previously,  and  this 
satisfactory  end  was  achieved  without  stinting  a  man. 
Such  a  remarkable  result  was  primarily  due  to  the  improved 
method  of  preparing  and  serving  the  food.  During  the 
war  more  than  50,000  men  were  passed  through  the  cookery 
schools  attached  to  the  Home  Commands.  The  effect  of 
such  imposing  economies  proved  of  distinct  benefit  to  the 
community,  because  the  reduced  supplies  to  the  Army 
released  so  much  more  bread  and  meat  to  the  non-combatant 
element  of  the  country. 

The  serving  of  meals,  at  least  so  far  as  the  Home  units 
were  concerned,  was  also  completely  transformed.  Instead 
of  the  men  being  compelled  to  indulge  in  a  wild  scramble 
with  their  messing-tins  for  their  meat  supplies,  the  latter 
was  cut  up  in  the  cook-house  and  assigned  to  dishes  for 
the  table.  Each  man  thus  became  assured  of  his  allotted 
ration.  But  in  the  event  of  the  allocation  exceeding  what 
the  soldier  desired,  as  for  instance  when  he  was  a  trifle  off 
his  feed,  instead  of  being  compelled  to  take  his  ration  willy- 
nilly,  eating  as  much  as  he  fancied  and  leaving  the  balance 
on  his  plate  to  swell  the  swill-tub,  he  was  instructed  not  to 
help  himself  to  more  than  he  felt  he  could  attack.  If,  after 
settling  down  to  his  meal,  he  found  his  appetite  to  return 
unexpectedly,  he  was  free,  after  the  manner  of  Oliver  Twist, 
to  ask  for  more,  with  this  difference — he  was  sure  to  receive  it. 

Although  under  this  regime  the  cooks  were  given  less 
raw  material  with  which  to  carry  out  their  appointed  tasks, 
yet  it  was  found  possible  to  induce  the  lesser  quantity  to 
go  farther  than  the  larger  allotment  had  ever  gone  before. 
Other  economies  resulting  from  the  observance  of  more 
scientific  culinary  methods  were  also  recorded.     The  intro- 


THE   ARMY   SWILL-TUB  43 

duction  of  women  into  the  kitchen  was  tried.  This  experi- 
ment, doubtless  owing  to  the  fact  that  this  represented  a 
woman's  true  sphere  and  from  her  inherent  tendency  to 
be  careful,  efficient,  and  thorough  in  every  detail  concerning 
the  preparation  of  meals,  proved  a  conspicuous  success. 

Now,  no  matter  how  persistently  and  effectively  the 
lessons  of  economy  may  be  preached  in  the  kitchen  and  at 
the  table  as  much  in  the  home  as  in  the  army,  and  not- 
withstanding the  infinitesimal  degree  to  which  the  propor- 
tion of  spoiled  food  may  be  reduced  by  the  introduction 
of  superior  methods  and  skill,  a  certain  amount  of  waste 
is  unavoidable.  It  cannot  be  overcome  in  its  entirety. 
Tastes  differ  so  widely  that  odds  and  ends  are  certain  to 
be  left  untouched  upon  the  plate,  while  a  certain  accumu- 
lation of  gristle,  bone,  fat  and  other  inedible  portions  must 
be  expected. 

The  residue  upon  the  individual  plate  may  be  so  insig- 
nificant as  to  render  a  second  thought  concerning  its  probable 
value  superfluous.  But,  multiply  that  individual  plate  and 
its  contribution  of  waste  by  the  tens  of  thousands  of  plates 
in  use  at  one  time,  as  in  the  army,  and  it  will  be  realized 
that,  in  the  aggregate,  the  fragments  assume  a  very  imposing 
volume.  Furthermore,  in  the  kitchen  where  the  joints  are 
cut  up,  the  accumulation  of  pieces  is  striking.  Lastly,  in 
washing  up  the  plates,  dishes  and  other  utensils  what  an 
avenue  is  offered  for  the  escape  of  immense  quantities  of 
fat  through  the  sink  gully  ?  I  have  already  indicated  in 
a  previous  chapter  what  wealth  may  be  lost  in  this  manner, 
and  how  it  only  needs  adequate  reclamation  methods  to 
enable  such  loss  to  be  avoided. 

Accordingly,  contemporaneously  with  the  reorganization 
of  the  catering  and  cooking  issues,  the  exploitation  of  the 
now  appreciably  attenuated  swill-tub  contents  was  investi- 
gated. This  residue  was  still  being  sold  to  the  farmers, 
but  they  were  not  regarding  their  purchases  with  unalloyed 
delight.  Contrary  to  general  opinion,  perhaps,  raw  swill 
does  not  constitute  an  ideal  foodstuff  for  porkers.  As  a 
rule  it  is  too  rich  in  fat  and  so  tends  to  exercise  a  debilitating 
and  impoverishing  effect  upon  the  animals,  being  a  frequent 
cause  of  scour. 

About  this  time  a  grave  problem  asserted  itself  in  another 
field  of  military  activity.     The  Ministry  of  Munitions  had 


44  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

decided  to  speed-up  the  output  of  explosives,  but  such 
acceleration  was  threatened  by  a  shortage  of  the  indispens- 
able constituent,  glycerine.  It  was  not  a  question  of  the 
facilities  for  the  production  of  this  essential  being  insufficient 
to  cope  with  the  demand  because  ample  plant  was  available. 
The  difficulty  was  the  dearth  of  animal  fat  which  yields 
the  basic  material  in  question.  Soap  manufacturers  were 
also  being  hard-pressed  for  similar  fats  to  conduct  their 
operations.  As  a  result  of  the  depressing  outlook  the  price 
of  glycerine  commenced  to  advance  upon  the  market  at  a 
disconcerting  rate. 

The  military  authorities,  cognizant  of  the  huge  quantities 
of  animal  fat  reclaimable  from  the  swill-tubs  throughout 
the  service,  recognized  the  opportunity  to  ease  the  crisis 
to  an  appreciable  degree.  The  segregation,  collection,  and 
surrender  of  this  potential  raw  material  to  the  industry 
concerned  were  merely  matters  of  organization.  It  was 
promptly  realized  that  if  the  issue  were  left  for  adjustment 
to  the  interests  generally  identified  with  such  enterprises, 
and  in  which  the  itinerant  rag-and-bone  merchant  and 
marine  store  dealer  figure  prominently,  confusion  would 
ensue,  conducing  to  further  disturbance  of  prices. 

To  achieve  the  desired  efficiency  the  authorities  invited 
the  trade,  comprising  the  soap-makers  and  the  bone 
degreasers,  to  discuss  the  question.  The  authorities  suc- 
cintly  narrated  what  they  could  do  towards  the  solution 
of  the  problem.  The  trade  was  agreeably  surprised  by 
the  facts  and  figures  which  were  set  before  them,  and  was 
quick  to  appreciate  that  here  indeed  was  a  new  and  unex- 
pectedly rich  mine  of  raw  material  to  be  advantageously 
tapped.  The  Ministry  of  Munitions,  also  represented  at 
the  conference,  announced  its  preparedness  to  extend  a 
willing  hand.  It  would  take  over  all  the  glycerine  derived 
from  fats  procured  from  military  sources  at  a  fixed  price. 
This  was  mutually  settled  at  £59  10s. — $297.50 — per  ton, 
and  it  was  agreed  that  the  figure  should  remain  relatively 
firm  irrespective  of  market  fluctuations.  It  must  be  con- 
ceded that  the  Ministry  drove  an  astute  bargain,  because 
at  the  time  glycerine  was  commanding  £300 — $1,500 — per 
ton  upon  the  open  market,  which  sum  the  country  would 
have  been  compelled  to  pay  had  the  military  sources  of 
supply  not  been  available. 


THE   ARMY   SWILL-TUB  45 

The  trade  acquiesced  and  formed  a  committee  including 
officers  nominated  by  the  War  Office  to  complete  all  negoti- 
ations and  transactions.  Private  buyers  were  nominated 
to  cover  the  whole  country  and  a  flat  rate  for  the  purchase 
of  all  fats  from  military  sources  was  decided.  By  this 
simple  arrangement  every  unit  throughout  these  islands, 
no  matter  how  remote  its  situation,  was  assured  of  a  definite 
market  for  its  fats  and  bones.  Moreover,  these  units  were 
given  strict  instructions  to  sell  their  produce  only  to  the 
trade  representative  at  the  price  decided,  notwithstanding 
that  other  would-be  buyers  might  proffer  a  higher  quotation. 

So  far  as  the  army  was  concerned  the  remunerative 
market  for  all  waste  in  the  form  of  fats  and  bones  being 
established,  it  now  became  necessary  to  whip  up  the  con- 
tributions of  these  residues  to  the  uttermost  ounce.  A 
whirl-wind  campaign  was  conducted  throughout  the  whole 
of  the  Home  Commands  to  demonstrate  how  this  end  might 
be  consummated.  Officers  of  the  department  concerned 
visited  the  various  camps.  It  was  calmly  but  firmly  im- 
pressed upon  the  local  responsible  officers  that  they  must 
resort  to  every  artifice  to  trap  fats  and  bones  during  their 
devious  journeys,  so  that  nothing  might  escape.  There 
were  heart-to-heart  chats  with  the  cooks,  who,  their  imagin- 
ation fired  and  enthusiasm  kindled,  promised  to  leave  no 
stone  unturned  to  satisfy  the  authorities  in  this  direction. 

Only  one  danger  was  to  be  apprehended  as  a  result  of 
this  campaign  of  enlightenment.  In  their  zest  to  save  the 
fat  the  autocrats  of  the  kitchens  and  others  might  uncon- 
sciously deprive  the  soldier  of  his  proportion  of  this  food 
so  essential  to  the  maintenance  of  a  high  standard  of  health. 
Accordingly,  while  one  and  all  were  urged  to  keep  a  tight 
grip  upon  the  waste,  they  were  instructed  to  allow  the 
fighting  man  to  eat  just  as  much  fat  as  he  fancied  :  indeed 
his  consumption  of  the  highly  nutritive  dripping  was  to 
be  specifically  encouraged  because,  in  this  manner,  it  would 
become  possible  to  release  increased  quantities  of  butter 
and  margarine  to  the  civil  population.  Holding  the  scales 
evenly  between  the  soldier  and  the  cook-house  on  the  one 
hand,  and  between  the  troops  and  the  civilians  on  the  other, 
proved  to  be  one  of  the  most  intricate  and  delicate  problems 
associated  with  this  waste-saving  campaign. 

To  secure  the  fullest  co-operation  of  the  cooks  the  Army 


46  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

Council  agreed  to  the  extension  of  a  specially  attractive 
inducement.  An  extra  daily  financial  allowance  was 
sanctioned  on  the  basis  of  the  more  fat  the  cooks  saved 
and  turned  over  to  the  making  of  munitions  the  better  they 
would  be  off  in  pocket.  This  allocation,  however,  was  not 
to  become  a  charge  upon  the  public  purse.  It  was  insisted 
that  it  should  be  defrayed  from  the  sum  realized  by  a  unit 
in  the  disposal  of  its  waste  fats  and  bones,  while  the  balance 
was  to  be  devoted  wholly  to  the  provision  of  kitchen  utensils 
and  other  amenities.  The  units  alone  were  to  benefit  from 
the  practise  of  economy  and  obviation  of  all  waste. 

The  consummation  of  this  arrangement  led  to  one  or 
two  amusing  sequels  which,  it  is  to  be  feared,  had  scarcely 
been  anticipated.  Naturally  every  camp  became  uncannily 
keen  to  derive  the  utmost  profit  from  this  phase  of  permissible 
trading,  and  a  certain  rivalry  developed  between  the  various 
units  to  score  top  marks. 

There  was  one  camp,  composed  of  men  drawn  from 
units  scattered  all  over  the  country,  undergoing  musketry 
training.  The  men  became  affected  with  the  "  save  your 
bones  "  craze  to  an  acute  degree.  As  a  result  of  his  periodical 
investigation  the  commanding  officer  suddenly  discovered 
that  he  was  getting  all  the  fat  he  wanted.  But  the  bones  ! 
That  was  a  different  story  :  the  yield  was  by  no  means 
what  it  should  have  been.  The  startling  discrepancy 
prompted  inquiry,  and  the  officer  found  that  the  soldiers 
were  more  fully  alive  to  the  real  significance  of  the  swill- 
tub  than  he  had  imagined.  But  they  were  more  loyal  to 
their  own  units  than  to  the  musketry  camp  to  which  their 
attachment  was  only  temporary.  They  were  waging  a 
quiet  campaign  among  themselves,  collecting  all  the  bones 
upon  which  they  could  place  their  hands,  and  determined 
that  their  colleagues  should  derive  all  the  benefits  accruing 
from  the  sale  of  this  waste  were  posting  their  bone-hauls 
back  to  their  own  units  ! 

Another  instance  of  similar  zeal  was  even  more  humorous. 
A  certain  Imperial  unit  was  camped  next  door  to  some  troops 
from  Overseas.  The  "  save-your-fat-and-bones "  scheme 
was  carefully  explained  to  the  latter,  but  having  come  from 
a  land  where  meat  was  plentiful  they  failed  to  see  the  object 
of  being  so  vigilant  and  miserly  in  regard  to  the  residue  in 
question.     The  authorities,  realizing  the  situation,  refrained 


THE  ARMY  SWILL-TUB  47 

from  further  pursuit  of  their  proposal,  being  content  to 
allow  what  they  had  already  expressed  to  sink  into  the 
minds  of  the  soldiers,  confident  that,  upon  reflection,  the 
Overseas  unit  would  appreciate  the  wisdom  of  the  official 
recommendation. 

The  expected  happened.  The  men  from  Yonder  Britain 
in  the  end  did  conclude  that  there  was  something  in  this 
waste-saving  stunt,  and  that  they  might  profit  from  fol- 
lowing the  general  practice.  They  commenced  to  indulge 
in  bone-collecting  and  hoarding  with  rare  gusto.  No  school- 
boy ever  collected  postage-stamps  more  keenly  than  did 
those  fighting  men  from  Farther  Britain  save  bones  and  fat. 

This  outburst  of  zealous  economy  delighted  the  authori- 
ties. They  saw  the  yields  from  the  camp  of  the  Overseas 
fighting  men  rising  by  leaps  and  bounds.  But  there  was 
a  decrease  in  the  bone-yield  from  the  Home  unit  next  door  ! 
The  supply  officer,  feeling  that  something  must  be  amiss, 
and  that  possibly  the  Overseas  troops  were  receiving  an 
inordinate  quantity  of  bone  in  the  issue  to  stimulate  collect- 
ing, dived  into  the  mystery.  It  did  not  prove  to  be  a  very 
baffling  quest.  The  Overseas  unit  was  able  to  show  a  high 
yield  of  bones  because  it  was  indulging  in  surreptitious 
nocturnal  raids,  at  opportune  moments,  upon  the  bone- 
stocks  of  its  neighbours  ! 

As  the  scheme  was  brought  into  wider  and  wider  appli- 
cation it  was  found  that  the  exploitation  of  the  actual  swill- 
tub  might  be  conducted  to  still  greater  advantage.  Hitherto 
the  task  had  been  the  redemption  of  the  bones  and  waste 
fat  before  it  reached  the  actual  garbage  barrel.  But  to 
turn  the  actual  contents  of  the  swill-tub  properly  so-called 
to  economic  account  it  was  seen  that  certain  plant  would 
have  to  be  installed,  although  investigation  revealed  that 
such  appliances  need  neither  be  elaborate  nor  expensive. 
The  suggestion  was  thoroughly  ventilated,  and  as  a  result 
it  was  decided  to  approach  the  authorities  with  a  proposal 
which  was  decidedly  novel  and  which  was  certainly  unpre- 
cedented. 

Convincing  facts  and  figures  were  obtained  to  indicate 
what  the  probable  yield  from  this  latest  endeavour  to  turn 
military  waste  to  profitable  account  would  be.  These 
estimates  took  into  consideration  the  expenditure  incurred 
by   the   acquisition   and    operation   of    the   plant   adopted 


48  MILLIONS   FROM   WASTE 

The  proposed  outlay  was  not  heavy,  but  it  was  felt  by  those 
who  had  elaborated  this  latest  scheme  that  to  request  the 
authorities  to  incorporate  it  as  part  and  parcel  of  existing 
military  routine  would  defeat  the  primary  principle  under- 
lying the  idea.  It  was  felt  that,  if  the  enterprise  could  be 
rendered  profitable  under  military  conditions,  it  might  lead 
to  its  practical  application  by  the  civil  community.  The 
impression  obtained  that  the  few  thousand  pounds  capital 
expenditure  which  would  have  to  be  incurred,  together 
with  the  revenue,  would  be  lost  among  the  maze  of  millions 
sterling  incidental  to  current  military  expenditure,  even  if 
it  did  not  suffer  actual  inclusion,  from  its  comparative 
triviality,  among  "  sundry  expenses."  In  this  event  all 
the  les.sons  to  be  derived  therefrom  would  be  lost.  On  the 
other  hand  if  the  enterprise  could  be  kept  separate  and 
could  be  conducted,  as  desired,  along  accepted  commercial 
lines,  success  would  impress  the  civilian,  and  might  assist 
in  persuading  the  municipal  and  other  authorities  to  do 
likewise  with  the  similar  raw  materials  available  in  plenty 
from  domestic  sources  of  supply. 

Thereupon  it  was  suggested  that  the  War  Office  should 
sanction  the  formation  of  a  limited  liability  company  to 
handle  this  latest  exploitation  of  the  actual  swill  along 
orthodox  business  lines.  To  allay  any  suspicions  of  private 
interests  profiteering  at  the  expense  of  the  tax-payer  it  was 
recommended  that  the  whole  of  the  capital  should  be  sub- 
scribed, and  held,  by  the  authorities,  who  should  also  be 
invested  with  the  power  to  appoint  the  directors,  and  who 
should  hold  office  at  the  pleasure  of  the  War  Office. 

The  novelty  of  the  proposal  was  conceded,  but  the  pro- 
moters were  so  sanguine  of  achieving  success  that  the 
requisite  sanction  was  extended.  Thereupon  a  company 
was  duly  registered  at  Somerset  House  in  due  compliance 
with  the  law,  with  its  articles  of  association  complete  in 
every  respect,  under  the  title  "  Army  Waste  Products, 
Limited,"  with  a  nominal  capital  of  7s.  ($1.75)  !  That 
company  proved  an  overwhelming  successful  venture  from 
the  country's  point  of  view.  Its  results  conclusively  demon- 
strated the  fact  that  there  are  literally  millions  in  waste. 

Small  plants  were  established  in  military  camps  in 
several  parts  of  the  country,  and  subsequently  the  system 
was  extended  to  the  army  in   France,  while  the  American 


THE  ARMY  SWILL-TUB  49 

Expeditionary  Force,  impressed  with  its  achievements, 
embraced  the  scheme  and  the  plants  employed.  Oper- 
ations were  not  confined  to  the  treatment  of  the  despised 
contents  of  the  swill-tub,  but  also  to  the  recovery  of  waste 
gravy  and  fats  from  the  plates,  the  reclamation  of  bread- 
crumbs from  the  table,  sweepings  from  the  bakery  and  stores, 
and  of  odd  crusts  which  heretofore  had  found  no  application 
other  than  as  food  for  the  wild  birds,  as  well  as  the  treatment 
of  bones  before  they  were  handed  over  to  the  degreasers. 

A  policy  of  rigid  commercialism  was  introduced  and 
sedulously  followed.  The  contents  of  the  swill-tubs,  as  well 
as  all  other  waste  described  above,  were  purchased,  the 
prevailing  prices  being  paid  so  that  other  commercial  con- 
cerns were  denied  the  opportunity  of  preferring  the  charge 
of  unfair  trading.  Items  of  rental,  wages,  as  well  as  main- 
tenance, depreciation  and  capitalization  charges  were  also 
taken  fully  into  account,  while  the  resultant  products  were 
also  sold  at  market  prices,  which,  as  subsequent  results 
revealed,  left  an  ample  margin  of  profit. 

The  plant  employed,  as  well  as  the  procedure  followed 
in  reclaiming  and  working  the  wastes  up  into  raw  material 
for  industrial  uses,  possesses  many  interesting  features, 
and  are  fully  described  in  the  next  chapter. 


CHAPTER   IV 

THE  RECLAMATION  OF  MILITARY  ORGANIC  WASTE 

In  deciding  the  type  of  plant  suited  to  the  recovery  of  mili- 
tary organic  waste  regard  was  specially  devoted  to  two 
governing  principles.  The  one  was  the  standardization  of 
plant,  so  far  as  was  practicable,  to  facilitate  duplication 
and  installation  of  the  machinery  in  the  various  camps. 
The  second  was  the  selection  of  such  plant  as  could  be  in- 
stalled readily  and  cheaply  in  an  improvised  building,  and 
which,  if  the  conditions  warranted,  would  enable  a  standard 
type  of  cheap  and  simple  building  to  be  adopted. 

So  far  as  the  initial  plants  were  concerned  dependence 
had  to  be  placed  upon  existing  structures,  otherwise  delay 
in  putting  the  scheme  into  practical  application  would 
have  been  inevitable,  owing  to  the  difficulty  attending  the 
acquisition  of  constructional  material.  But  the  installation 
of  the  plants  in  extemporized  buildings  sufficed  to  establish 
the  applicability  of  the  idea  to  any  type  of  building  of 
adequate  dimensions,  and  in  such  a  manner  as  to  impose 
only  the  minimum  of  structural  alterations  to  secure  the 
requisite  efficiency.  This  adaptability  is  an  outstanding 
feature,  because  it  indicates  how  the  recovery  of  organic 
waste  may  be  attacked  along  the  most  economical  yet 
comprehensive  lines,  and  with  the  minimum  of  capital 
expenditure  and  its  concomitant  amortization  charges. 

Two  types  of  plant  were  adopted,  both  being  standard- 
ized. One  coincided  with  what  might  be  described  as  the 
central  or  permanent  waste-recovery  station,  while  the 
second  presented  all  the  necessary  elements  of  portability 
with  the  added  advantages  of  inexpensive  dismantling, 
removal,  and  expeditious  reassembling  at  another  point 
according  to   exigencies.     But   the   processes   are   common 

to  both  types. 

eo 


MILITARY  WASTE  51 

In  the  case  of  the  permanent  mill  which  I  visited  struc- 
tural alterations  had  been  reduced  to  the  absolute  minimum, 
the  most  conspicuous  outlay  being  the  provision  of  a  simple 
form  of  elevator  to  lift  the  swill  to  a  level  above  the  plant 
to  permit  of  gravity  feed.  The  total  cost  of  this  station, 
including  the  installation  of  the  necessary  machinery,  which 
included  a  steam-boiler,  bone-crusher,  small  engine,  melter, 
centrifugal  or  turbine  fat  extractor,  and  settling  tanks, 
with  one  or  two  further  accessories,  was  only  £2,500 — 
$12,500. 

The  swill  is  brought  to  the  mill  by  motor-lorry.  Oper- 
ations are  commenced  at  an  early  hour,  because  health 
considerations  demand  that  waste  of  this  character  shall 
be  handled  with  all  possible  promptitude  in  a  big  camp. 
The  clearance  is  carried  out  daily  and  is  complete,  including 
all  garbage,  bones  and  other  profit-yielding  organic  residue 
from  the  cook-house.  Segregation  is  conducted  as  far  as 
practicable  at  the  source,  special  sanitary  vessels  for  dis- 
tinctive residues  being  provided.  The  mill  continues  work- 
ing throughout  the  day  until  the  whole  of  the  morning's 
collection  has  been  duly  treated.  No  accumulation  or 
carrying-over  of  some  of  one  day's  swill  to  the  next  day  is 
permitted.  Swill  is  susceptible  to  speedy  fermentation, 
especially  during  hot  and  sultry  weather,  and  so  would 
become  noisome  within  a  very  short  period,  as  well  as 
developing  into  an  ideal  breeding-ground  for  flies  and  other 
pests. 

The  contents  of  the  collecting  lorries  are  distinctly 
heterogeneous,  the  vehicles  being  laden  with  swill,  bones, 
empty  tins,  jam  and  pickle  jars,  bottles — in  short,  anything 
possessing  an  element  of  salvage  value.  In  segregating  the 
waste  at  the  cook-house  special  stress  is  laid  upon  the 
necessity  to  keep  all  green  vegetable  matter,  such  as  outer 
leaves,  stumps  and  other  inedible  trimmings,  distinct  from 
the  general  swill  for  the  reason  explained  later. 

The  swill  is  transferred  by  the  elevator  to  the  upper 
level,  where  it  is  dumped  into  a  capacious  sink  to  drain. 
The  proportion  of  free  liquid  is  not  pronounced,  the  swill 
being  rather  in  the  nature  of  a  slush,  whatever  fat  there 
may  be  present,  apart  from  the  solid  pieces,  being  either 
congealed  in  flakes  and  globules,  either  free  or  clinging 
to  the  more  stable  substance.     The  superfluous  water  having 


52  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

run  off  the  residue  is  permitted  to  fall  through  a  trap  into 
a  hopper  feeding  the  capacious  cooker  or  melter.  Where 
the  height  of  the  building  does  not  permit  the  provision 
of  an  elevated  draining  sink  the  swill,  dumped  at  ground- 
level,  is  shovelled  into  the  melter. 

The  melter  is  a  cylindrical  vessel  or  drum  fitted  with  a 
steam  jacket,  the  steam  circulating  at  a  pressure  of  about 
80  lb.  per  square  inch  through  the  annular  space  between 
the  inner  and  outer  jackets.  The  capacity  of  the  vessel  is 
approximately  1,700  pounds,  and  the  contents  are  kept 
agitated  during  the  process  by  paddles  mounted  upon  a 
revolving  shaft  forming  the  longitudinal  axis  of  the  drum. 

The  cooking  process  drives  off  all  remaining  moisture 
in  the  form  of  steam,  and,  at  the  same  time,  liberates  what- 
ever fat  may  be  present  by  melting  and  rendering  it  fluid. 
It  gravitates  to  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder  to  make  its  escape 
through  a  suitable  vent  and  pipe  into  the  settling  tank. 
The  last-named  is  also  steam-heated  by  a  coiled  pipe  system 
which  not  only  sterilizes  but  clarifies  the  reclaimed  fat, 
which  is  then  permitted  to  cool  and  to  solidify. 

The  swill  remains  in  the  drum  for  70  to  90  minutes.  By 
the  end  of  this  period  the  contents  have  been  practically 
cooked,  while  all  free  fat  has  effected  its  escape.  It  will 
be  observed  that  the  steam  does  not  come  into  contact 
with  the  contents,  but  is  confined  to  circulation  between 
the  jackets.  When  withdrawn  from  the  melter  the  swill 
resembles  a  stiff  slush.  This  is  transferred  to  a  canvas 
bag  to  be  dropped  into  a  wire  cage  forming  the  inner  vessel 
of  the  second  machine,  which  is  a  vertical  turbine  extractor. 
The  vessel  when  charged  is  closed  by  clamping  down  the  lid. 

Steam  is  turned  on  and  the  second  stage  of  the  fat 
reclamation  process  proceeds.  Beneath  the  wire  cage  a 
series  of  steam  jets  are  radially  disposed  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  allow  the  steam  to  impinge  upon  the  cage  at  an  angle. 
The  cage  itself  is  supported  freely  upon  a  suitable  vertical 
shaft  and  so,  under  the  impetus  imparted  by  the  steam 
issuing  from  the  jets,  naturally  revolves.  By  varying  the 
volume  and  pressure  of  the  steam  the  revolving  speed  of 
the  cage  may  be  varied  within  wide  limits.  Consequently 
it  is  possible  to  give  the  cage  a  very  high  rotary  velocity. 

The  steam,  after  performing  its  mission  towards  rotating 
the  cage,  is  induced  to  ascend  in  such  a  manner  as  to  permeate 


MILITARY  WASTE  53 

the  contents  of  the  canvas  bag  imprisoned  within  the  wire 
cage.  All  fatty  matter  still  associated  with  the  organic 
material,  owing  to  the  high  temperature  of  the  steam, 
becomes  still  more  fluid.  Under  the  centrifugal  action  set  up 
by  the  high  rotary  speed  of  the  cage  this  fat  becomes  separ- 
ated from  the  solids  to  be  expressed  through  the  pores  of 
the  canvas  container  and  also  the  perforations  of  the  outer 
cage,  and  to  be  flung  against  the  inner  wall  of  the  extractor. 
The  extreme  fluidity  of  the  very  hot  grease  facilitates  and 
expedites  this  separation,  the  expelled  fat  finally  dropping 
to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  to  make  its  escape  through 
suitable  drain  holes  to  pass  into  the  settling  tanks  previously 
mentioned. 

Under  the  whirling  action  of  the  turbine  quite  91  per 
cent,  of  the  fatty  content  of  the  mash  is  extracted  and 
recovered.  The  treatment  in  the  turbine  extractor  is  con- 
tinued until  the  flow  of  grease  to  the  settling  tanks  is  observed 
to  cease,  when  steam  is  shut  off  and  the  extractor  is  emptied. 
The  mash,  somewhat  resembling  peat  in  consistency  and 
of  a  rich  chocolate  colour,  cooked  through  and  through, 
is  spread  upon  the  floor  to  cool.  Unless  one  has  followed 
the  cycle  of  operations  one  would  never  associate  this  odour- 
less, clean,  dry  and  sterilized  product  with  the  repulsive 
looking  slush  from  the  swill-tubs  which  had  entered  the 
mill  barely  two  hours  previously. 

This  residue  constitutes  an  ideal  pig-food.  It  is  rich  in 
the  essentials  for  building  up  the  frame  and  flesh  of  the 
porker,  and  as  may  be  supposed  finds  a  ready  sale.  It 
appeals  to  the  farmer  because  it  is  clean  to  handle,  is  easier 
to  transport  than  the  conventional  swill,  because  it  can 
be  bagged,  while  it  possesses  excellent  keeping  qualities. 
In  effect  it  is  a  concentrated  food,  and  accordingly  can  be 
broken  down  by  blending  with  ordinary  swill  to  increase 
the  calories  of  the  latter  as  they  affect  the  pig,  or  it  may 
be  used  instead  of  pig-meal,  for  which  it  is  an  excellent 
substitute. 

Finally,  it  meets  with  the  farmer's  favour  because  its 
fat  content,  being  only  about  9  per  cent.,  coincides  more 
closely  with  the  animal's  dietetic  requirements.  It  is  not 
surprising,  in  these  circumstances,  that  the  farmer  should 
be  eager  to  procure  as  much  of  this  sterilized  food  as  he 
can  obtain  at  a  fair  price.     Certainly  the  authorities  experi- 


54  MILLIONS  FROM  WASTE 

ence  no  difficulty  in  regard  to  its  disposal  at  a  remunerative 
figure. 

The  bones,  upon  reaching  the  mill,  are  dumped  apart. 
They  represent  waste  from  the  cook-house  stripped  as 
cleanly  of  meat  and  fat  as  a  sharp  knife  in  dexterous  practised 
hands  will  allow.  Their  gravy-yielding  and  other  nutritious 
constituents  have  been  extracted  from  prolonged  sojourn 
in  the  stock-pots.  When  they  reach  the  swill-mill  they 
appear  to  be  as  capable  of  rendering  any  further  contri- 
bution to  the  general  scheme  as  those  bones  which  have 
passed  through  the  hands  of  a  frugal  housewife.  They  have 
reached  the  stage  when  such  refuse  is  either  thrown  into 
the  kitchen  fire,  dust-bin,  or  handed  over  to  the  peripatetic 
rag-and-bone  monger. 

Yet  they  still  possess  distinct  fat  value,  but  it  can  only 
be  wrung  out  by  drastic  effort.  The  bones  are  first  passed 
through  a  crusher  to  be  reduced  to  small  size.  At  times 
the  bone-dump  from  the  cook-house  will  be  found  to  be 
swollen  by  the  dismantled  framework  of  what  was  once  a 
horse  or  some  other  animal,  and  which  is  to  be  passed 
through  the  fat  reclamation  factory.  The  crushed  bones 
are  submitted  to  the  same  process  as  the  swill,  being  passed 
through  the  melter  and  extractor  successively.  The  com- 
bined action  of  cooking  and  whizzing  brings  about  a  far 
more  impressive  release  of  fat  than  may  possibly  be  imagined. 
Furthermore,  cooking  and  whirling  effectively  release  all 
slender  strings  and  shreds  of  fat  which  may  have  escaped 
the  butcher's  sharp  knife,  while  clinging  tatters  of  meat 
and  sinew  are  also  thoroughly  cooked.  Upon  withdrawal 
from  the  extractor  the  bones  are  thrown  over  a  riddle, 
this  action  being  sufficient  to  detach  all  shreds  of  fibrous 
matter  which  fall  through  the  meshes  of  the  sieve. 

The  bones  are  now  ready  for  dispatch  to  the  degreasers. 
The  loose  fibrous  residue  resulting  from  riddling  is  collected 
for  subsequent  use  in  the  preparation  of  poultry  foods 
Seeing  that  the  treatment  of  the  bones  in  this  mill  is  pur- 
sued for  the  express  purpose  of  reclaiming  only  the  loose 
and  easily  secured  fat  and  grease  there  is  no  conflict  with 
industry.  The  degreasers  are  concerned  rather  with  the 
recovery  of  fat  resistant  to  ordinary  salvage  methods,  as 
well  as  glue,  size,  and  many  other  commodities  involving 
the  submission  of  the  bone  waste  to  many  special  processes, 
the  ultimate  residue  being  ground  up  to  form  a  fertilizer. 


MILITARY  WASTE  55 

The  fat,  after  cooking,  clarification,  and  solidification, 
presents  an  attractive,  odourless,  sterilized  mass.  This  is 
dispatched  to  the  trade  for  resolution  into  tallow,  glycerine, 
and  the  requisite  basic  material  for  the  production  of  soap. 

I  mentioned  that,  in  the  segregation  of  the  wastes  at 
the  cook-house,  special  emphasis  is  laid  upon  the  necessity 
to  prevent  the  combination  of  all  green  vegetable  refuse 
with  the  swill.  This  is  essential,  because  in  the  subsequent 
cooking  operation  the  dye  from  the  green  waste  is  extracted 
as  every  housewife  knows,  and,  mingling  with  the  fat,  will 
steep  the  latter  a  pronounced  greenish  hue.  This  detracts 
very  pronouncedly  from  the  value  of  the  fat  because  the 
dye,  being  of  vegetable  origin,  cannot  possibly  be  eliminated 
in  the  subsequent  manufacturing  operations  through  which 
the  fat  is  passed.  On  the  other  hand,  the  deep  yellow 
tinge  which  is  likely  to  result  from  the  presence  of  curry 
waste  in  the  swill  is  not  deleterious  because  it  can  be  readily 
discharged. 

For  some  time  the  disposal  of  the  green  vegetable  waste 
presented  a  thorny  problem.  Farmers  were  not  prepared 
to  purchase  it  with  the  ordinary  cooked  pig-food,  for  the 
simple  reason  that  they  already  possessed  a  surfeit  of  this 
refuse  in  their  fields.  Cremation  appeared  to  be  the  only 
possible  solution  of  the  difficulty,  the  accumulations  being 
somewhat  formidable,  but  as  a  result  of  experiment  the 
difficulty  was  very  neatly  and  profitably  overcome.  This 
garbage,  together  with  other  waste  of  a  comparative  char- 
acter, is  subjected  to  a  desiccating  process  to  yield  a  product 
which  is  adapted  to  association  with  other  approved  by- 
products, without  depreciating  the  pecuniary  or  other  value 
of  the  whole,  for  poultry  feeding. 

Both  plant  and  processes  are  extremely  simple.  Nor 
is  a  pretentious  staff  required.  Six  men  suffice  to  attend 
to  an  installation  capable  of  dealing  with  the  swill  contri- 
buted daily  by  a  unit  of  15,000  men.  One  hand  tends  the 
engine  and  boiler  for  the  supply  of  steam  and  power  ;  two 
men  are  responsible  for  the  conduct  of  the  melter ;  while 
two  additional  men  wait  upon  the  turbine  extractor.  The 
sixth  man  is  retained  to  operate  the  bone  crusher.  This 
staff  need  only  be  increased,  as  the  volume  of  work  rises 
from  any  accretion  to  the  camp,  to  the  extent  of  one  man 
for  every  additional  5,000  soldiers, 


56  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

The  wastage  of  bread,  for  the  most  part  inadvertently, 
is  far  heavier  than  may  be  supposed.  Possibly  the  heaviest 
proportion  of  waste  arises  from  unconscious  crumbling  of 
the  article  during  conversation  at  the  table.  Observation 
revealed  that  the  accumulation  of  such  crumbs  and  crusts 
was  pronounced,  while  it  was  also  discovered  that  a  heavy 
contribution  was  extended  by  the  bakery  as  the  result  of 
cutting  up  the  loaves.  The  loss  of  flour  incurred  during 
the  preparation  of  the  bread  and  pastry  was  also  found  to 
be  appreciable. 

Thereupon  it  was  decided  to  reclaim  all  bread  waste 
and  flour  residues.  The  crumbs,  together  with  the  odd 
crusts  and  other  small  fragments,  are  collected,  while  the 
bakery  floors  and  tables  are  regularly  swept  to  yield  grist 
to  the  salvage  harvest.  Moreover,  despite  the  observance 
of  all  possible  precautions  to  avoid  waste,  accidents  are 
unavoidable.  Occasionally  a  batch  of  bread  is  ruined  in 
the  baking.  Being  unfit  for  human  consumption  it  is  handed 
over  to  the  salvage  department  to  be  worked  up  into  readily 
marketable  products  instead  of  suffering  destruction  as  was 
formerly  the  practice. 

Bread  and  flour  waste  is  subjected  to  a  simple  and  in- 
expensive roasting  treatment  and  is  then  roughly  graded. 
The  larger  fragments  and  condemned  loaves  are  reduced 
to  a  convenient  size,  while  the  finer  material  is  reduced  to 
a  meal.  The  granulated  residue  is  absorbed  by  the  firms 
specializing  in  the  manufacture  of  compounded  proprietary 
poultry  foods,  entering  into  the  composition  thereof  to 
approximately  20  per  cent.,  which  experience  has  proved 
to  represent  an  excellent  balance.  During  the  war  this 
granulated  waste,  sold  in  bulk,  realized  about  i|d.  (2J  cents) 
per  lb.,  plus  an  additional  charge  of  10  per  cent,  to  cover 
administration  expenses.  The  coarser  grade  of  waste  proved 
to  be  an  excellent  feed  for  horses — superior  to  oats — and 
consequently  was  somewhat  in  demand  at  i|d.  (3  J  cents) 
per  lb.,  the  availability  of  such  feed  during  the  period 
when  horses  were  necessarily  rationed  owing  to  the  shortage 
of  the  conventional  feeding-stuffs  being  keenly  appreciated. 
In  this  instance  the  extra  charge  on  account  of  adminis- 
tration expenses  was  also  made. 

Other  expressions  of  military  "  save-the-waste  "  activity . 
cover  the  recovery  of  tins,  bottles,  and  jars.     But  the  difrt- 


MILITARY  WASTE  57 

culties  concerning  transport  somewhat  adversely  affected 
success  in  this  direction  for  a  time.  The  preserve  and  pickle 
manufacturers  intimated  their  readiness  to  accept  all  bottles 
and  jars  owing  to  the  short  supply  of  new  receptacles  of 
this  character,  but  for  some  time  it  was  found  impossible 
to  spare  the  requisite  carrying  facilities.  The  provision  of 
canned  and  bottled  comestibles  does  not  enter  into  the 
official  scheme  of  rations,  the  supply  of  such  articles, 
"  extras,"  being  conducted  through  the  Navy  and  Army 
Canteen  Board,  which,  as  a  protection,  imposes  a  charge 
upon  all  jars  and  bottles  sold  to  the  canteen  attached  to 
a  unit.  As  a  result  every  care  is  observed  to  preserve  these 
vessels  to  avoid  any  financial  loss  arising  from  their  non- 
return. Consequently,  consignments  of  empty  jars  and 
bottles  are  generally  returned  intact,  such  losses  as  are 
incurred  being  unavoidable,  and,  in  the  main  are  due  to 
accidental  breakage. 

An  effort  was  also  made  to  discover  a  possible  com- 
mercial outlet  for  spent  tea-leaves.  This  beverage  is  par- 
ticularly popular  in  the  army,  and  the  accumulation  of  this 
waste  is  enormous.  At  one  period  the  Home  Commands 
were  called  upon  to  handle  over  13,500,000  pounds  of  this 
refuse  a  month.  The  thought  was  entertained  that  the 
extraction  of  the  caffeine  from  this  residue  might  prove  a 
profitable  venture,  but  the  experiments  were  inconclusive, 
and  so  the  proposal  was  abandoned.  Then  the  circumstance 
that  the  tea-leaves  carry  a  certain  proportion  of  potash  sug- 
gested another  line  of  application — conversion  into  fertilizer. 
But  here  again  success  failed  to  be  recorded.  The  profitable 
exploitation  of  spent  tea-leaves  still  awaits  conclusive  reso- 
lution. But  it  happens  to  be  one  of  those  problems  beset 
with  supreme  difficulties,  while  it  is  imperative  that  every 
precaution  should  be  observed  to  prevent  this  waste  finding 
its  way  into  unscrupulous  hands  to  be  turned  to  base  account 
to  the  disadvantage  of  the  community. 

I  have  already  mentioned  that,  while  every  effort  was 
made  to  recover  the  uttermost  ounce  of  fat-yielding  residue 
from  the  kitchens,  every  encouragement  was  extended  to 
the  troops  to  cultivate  the  consumption  of  the  nourishing 
dripping.  Although  it  would  seem  as  if  these  two  recom- 
mendations were  in  utter  conflict,  no  such  trouble  as  might 
have    been    anticipated    has    been    recorded.     The    troops 


58  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

appreciated  the  concession,  and  the  request  for  this  fat  has 
led  to  considerable  fertility  of  thought  and  individual  resource 
among  the  officers  of  the  various  units.  Such  initiative 
received  commendation  from  headquarters  because  it  not 
only  contributed  to  the  economical  consumption  of  food 
in  the  army,  but  reacted  to  the  advantage  of  the  civil  popu- 
lation who,  unable  to  obtain  dripping  owing  to  the  rigorous 
meat  rationing  in  operation,  were  compelled  to  depend  upon 
butter  and  margarine  for  their  fat  requirements.  The  in- 
creasing consumption  of  dripping  by  the  soldiers  to  whom 
it  was  readily  available  served  to  permit  increased  quantities 
of  the  restricted  supplies  of  other  articles  to  be  distributed 
among  the  community. 

In  one  cook-house  I  witnessed  an  interesting  method 
to  increase  the  dripping  yield.  A  big  pail  had  been  filled 
with  little  shreds  of  fat  and  meat,  shaved  and  scraped  by 
the  cooks  from  the  bones  of  the  freshly-cut-up  quarters  of 
beef.  This  pail  was  placed  within  an  outer  vessel  contain- 
ing water,  the  improvised  double  saucepan  then  being 
placed  upon  the  hot  stove.  As  the  water  boiled  the  fat 
clinging  to  the  shreds  of  fibre  dissolved,  while  the  meat- 
juices  also  became  dissociated  from  the  fibre  under  the 
influence  of  the  heat.  Boiling  was  continued  until  the  whole 
of  the  fat  had  melted,  when  the  vessel  was  removed  and  set 
upon  one  side  to  cool.  The  fat  solidified  at  the  top  to  yield 
a  fine  chunk  of  appetizing  rich  dripping,  while  immediately 
beneath  was  a  jellied  mass  of  gravy  and  disintegrated  meat- 
fibre,  forming  a  concentrated  beef-tea.  The  dripping  was 
reserved  for  issuance  in  lieu  of  butter  and  margarine,  while 
the  jelly  sediment  was  set  upon  one  side  to  improve  the 
contents  of  steak-pies,  puddings,  and  other  savoury  dishes. 

The  soldier  is  also  a  gourmet  for  cheese.  But  exigencies 
of  war  speedily  elevated  this  comestible  to  the  status  of  a 
luxury,  even  in  the  army.  Unfortunately  the  average 
cheese  does  not  lend  itself  to  economic  use.  It  is  friable, 
the  loss  in  crumbs  being  somewhat  pronounced,  while  the 
rind  is  lost. 

An  officer  conceived  an  ingenious  idea  to  persuade  the 
cheese  to  go  farther,  and  in  such  a  manner  as  to  eliminate 
all  possibility  of  waste.  A  whole  cheese  was  taken,  thor- 
oughly washed  and  cleaned.  It  was  then  placed  in  a  mill 
with  a  quantity  of  dripping,  the  proportion  being  60  per 


MILITARY   WASTE  59 

cent,  of  the  former  to  40  per  cent,  of  the  latter.  The  two 
constituents  were  then  pulped  and  blended  together. 

The  resultant  product  was  distinctly  surprising.  The 
cheddar  cheese  was  converted,  by  compounding  with  the 
animal  fat,  into  a  delicious  cream-like  article  of  the  consistency 
of  butter,  allowing  it  to  be  spread  upon  bread  and  biscuits. 
The  flavour  was  distinctly  improved ;  indeed,  the  soldiers 
expressed  a  decided  preference  for  this  blended  food.  Its 
nutritive  value  cannot  be  gainsaid,  because  it  carries  all 
the  virtues  of  the  cheese  plus  those  incidental  to  rich  animal 
fat. 

By  this  simple  expedient  all  wastage  of  cheese  was  over- 
come. Even  the  rind,  generally  conceded  to  represent  the 
richest  part  of  the  product,  was  used,  being  thoroughly 
disintegrated,  macerated  and  blended  with  the  dripping  by 
passage  through  the  little  mill.  Not  only  did  the  officer 
reduce  the  item  for  the  consumption  of  cheese  by  his  unit 
to  a  very  significant  degree,  but  he  achieved  the  desired 
end  without  penalizing  the  men  to  the  slightest  degree. 

The  process  is  so  simple  that  it  might  even  be  emulated 
to  profit  by  the  thrifty  housewife.  The  kitchen  mincing 
machine  will  suffice  for  the  purpose.  It  is  only  necessary 
to  pulp  and  to  blend  the  two  constituents  thoroughly  to- 
gether. It  certainly  offers  a  means  of  inducing  a  pound 
of  cheese  to  go  as  far  as,  if  not  farther  than,  a  pound  and 
a  half  has  ever  gone  before. 

In  so  far  as  the  arrest  of  the  elusive  fat  was  concerned 
there  remained  only  one  other  possible  avenue  of  escape 
demanding  interruption.  This  was  the  sink  where  all 
plates,  dishes,  and  cooking  utensils  in  general  are  washed. 
In  the  first  effort  to  secure  this  contribution  the  hot  water 
carrying  the  desired  material  was  led  into  a  pit.  Here  the 
fat  collected  in  the  form  of  a  scum,  which  was  skimmed 
off  at  intervals  and  sent  to  the  swill  mill  for  further  treat- 
ment. But  this  crude  method  gave  way  to  one  more  in 
consonance  with  modern  ideas.  The  fat  is  now  caught  at 
the  gully. 

One  device  I  saw  installed  to  achieve  this  end  was  of  an 
extremely  simple  character.  It  comprised  a  wooden  box, 
about  three  feet  in  length  by  one  foot  in  width,  and  about 
two  feet  in  depth.  It  was  subdivided  into  three  cells  by 
two  partitions,  which,  however,  did  not  extend  to  the  full 


60  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

depth  of  the  box.  The  pipe  from  the  sink  entered  the  box 
at  one  end  while  the  outlet  to  the  drain  was  placed  at  the 
opposite  end.  The  box  was  filled  with  cold  water,  which 
need  only  be  renewed  when  the  box  is  emptied  for  cleaning 
and  flushing,  since  normally  it  is  kept  charged  with  the 
water  coming  from  the  sink.  The  hot  water  bearing  the 
fat  circulates  through  the  three  cells  and  finally,  upon 
reaching  a  certain  level,  passes  into  the  drainage  system. 

But  during  its  passage  through  the  box  the  hot  water 
becomes  so  effectively  chilled  as  to  be  compelled  to  release 
any  fat  which  it  may  be  carrying.  This  congeals  and  rises 
to  the  surface.  Within  a  short  time  the  top  of  each  cell 
is  crusted  with  a  thick  layer  of  solid  fat  which  may  be 
removed  as  frequently  as  desired.  The  box  not  only  con- 
stitutes an  efficient  and  simple,  as  well  as  inexpensive, 
fat-trap,  but  also  acts  as  a  water  seal  to  the  sink,  thus 
preventing  all  nuisance  or  fouling  of  the  sink  pipe. 

The  amount  of  fat  capable  of  being  retrieved  in  this 
manner  is  certainly  startling.  The  fat-trap  which  I  saw 
fitted  to  one  of  the  sinks  of  an  army  cook-house  yielded 
several  pounds  of  fat  every  day — sheer  waste  recovered 
from  washing  plates,  pots  and  pans.  The  fat  is  dispatched 
to  the  swill-mill  to  be  passed  through  the  melter  and  ex- 
tractor in  the  usual  manner,  thereby  undergoing  thorough 
clarification  and  sterilization.  The  recovery  during  the 
course  of  the  year  of  several  thousand  pounds  of  fat  which 
otherwise  would  have  vanished  down  the  drain,  by  the 
introduction  of  a  small  wooden  box  such  as  I  have  described, 
represents  no  mean  achievement.  Certainly  it  serves  to 
bring  home  the  losses  which  are  incurred  at  this  point  in 
every  house  during  the  twelve  months.  The  device  might 
profitably  be  installed  at  every  sink  by  every  householder. 
The  few  shillings  involved  by  its  provision  would  be  quickly 
recouped,  because  the  fat  always  has  a  market.  Moreover, 
the  introduction  of  this  device  would  contribute  towards 
the  efficiency  of  the  drain,  keeping  it  clear  and  free  to  fulfil 
its  designed  function. 

That  it  pays  to  recover  all  fats  and  greases  lost  to  con- 
sumption or  permitted  to  escape  because  it  is  merely  residue 
is  conclusively  borne  out  by  the  results  recorded  in  con- 
nection with  the  military  operations  which  I  have  described. 
During  the  year  1917  the  fats — waste — reclaimed  from  the 


MILITARY  WASTE  61 

Home  Commands  of  the  British  Army  yielded  13,000  tons 
of  tallow.  The  value  of  all  the  by-products  recovered 
from  the  refuse  was  £700,000 — $3,500,000.  The  cost  of 
securing  this  waste  for  commercial  exploitation,  including 
the  extra  pay  extended  in  the  form  of  bonus  to  the  cooks, 
and  other  allowances,  was  £400,000— $2,000,000 — leaving  a 
balance  of  £300,000 — $1,500,000 — which  was  returned  to 
the  public. 

As  previously  mentioned,  the  fats  were  urgently  needed 
to  furnish  glycerine  for  the  manufacture  of  munitions. 
One  ton  of  crude  fat  yields  10  per  cent,  of  glycerine,  so 
that  1,300  tons  of  this  indispensable  article  were  derived 
from  this  one  source  of  supply  The  fat  was  sold  to  the  bone- 
degreasers  and  the  soap  manufacturers,  who  effected  the 
recovery  of  the  glycerine,  selling  the  product  to  the  Ministry 
of  Munitions  at  the  agreed  price  of  £59  10s.  to  £63 — $297.50 
to  $315 — per  ton,  as  compared  with  £300 — $1,500 — per 
ton  which  we  should  have  been  compelled  to  pay  had  we 
bought  the  glycerine  upon  the  open  market. 

Here  was  a  direct  saving  of  £237  to  £240  10s. — $1,185  to 
$1,202.50 — per  ton.  Altogether  the  purchase  of  glycerine 
recovered  from  military  organic  waste  represented  a  saving 
of  £312,650 — $1,563,250 — because  the  nation  obtained  for 
£77.35°  —  $386,750  —  what  otherwise  would  have  cost 
£390,000 — $1,950,000.  This  figure  is  not  quite  complete 
because,  inspired  by  the  success  achieved  from  the  milling 
of  the  swill  at  home,  the  army  in  France  established  similar 
stations  behind  the  lines  upon  the  other  side  of  the  Channel. 
When  these  were  brought  into  operation  the  shipment  of 
fat  and  grease  recovered  from  the  organic  waste  of  the 
British  Expeditionary  Force  in  France  represented  5,000 
tons  a  year,  whence  500  tons  of  glycerine  were  derived. 
The  5,000  tons  of  fat  won  from  the  swill-tubs  of  the  army 
in  France  realized  £140,000 — $700,000 — while  the  total 
saving  recorded  under  the  heading  of  glycerine  secured 
from  army  waste  fat  was  augmented  to  £432,000 — $2,160,000. 
During  the  year  in  question  the  aggregate  financial  economies 
directly  secured  from  the  exploitation  of  organic  army 
waste,  in  conjunction  with  the  introduction  of  ways  and 
means  to  reduce  the  yield  of  such  residue  from  the  observ- 
ance of  improved  culinary  methods  and  reduced  consump- 
tion of  foodstuffs  was  approximately  £5,626,000 — $28,130,000. 


62  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

Finally,  to  demonstrate  the  value  of  this  contribution  to 
the  aggressive  resources  of  this  country,  it  may  be  stated 
that  the  1,800  tons  of  glycerine  derived  from  the  18,000 
tons  of  tallow  recovered  from  the  army  swill-tubs,  rendered 
it  possible  to  turn  out  sufficient  nitro-glycerine  to  serve  as 
the  propellant  charges  for  18,000,000  eighteen-pounder 
shells. 

The  success  accomplished  with  the  army  waste  fat  and 
grease  prompts  the  obvious  inquiry  as  to  why  comparative 
methods  cannot  be  adopted  in  civilian  circles.  The  average 
household  has  but  little  conception  of  the  value  of  its  fat 
losses.  It  should  not  be  an  impossible  task  to  segregate 
the  waste  from  the  house  at  the  source,  and  to  submit  it 
to  similar  treatment.  The  majority  of  our  civic  and  muni- 
cipal authorities  possess  buildings  which  could  readily  be 
adapted  to  the  installation  of  the  necessary  plant,  and  the 
capital  outlay  therefore  need  not  be  heavy.  The  disposal 
of  the  various  by-products  would  not  be  attended  by  any 
difficulty.  True,  under  war  conditions  abnormal  prices 
ruled,  but  even  to-day  they  are  attractive  and  are  likely 
to  continue  to  remain  so  for  an  appreciable  time  to  come. 

Of  course,  the  municipal  authorities  could  not  aspire 
to  net  such  profits  as  are  possible  in  the  army.  In  the 
first  place  the  wage  problem  must  be  taken  into  consider- 
ation. Under  military  conditions  this  does  not  arise. 
Fatigue  parties  are  always  available  to  collect  the  swill 
and  to  conduct  its  conversion  into  fat.  But  even  if  the 
practice  were  pursued  at  a  loss  it  would  redound  to  the 
distinct  benefit  of  the  communit}'  in  general,  because  it 
would  comply  with  one  of  the  fundamental  laws  of  National 
Economy  and  would  conduce  towards  the  reduction  in  the 
cost  of  living.  But  unprofitable  exploitation  would  not 
result  so  long  as  the  methods  were  conducted  along  com- 
mercial lines.  Ineptitude  and  wastage  in  administration 
and  operation  alone  could  be  responsible  for  any  such 
eventuality  in  this  connection.  Happily  we  are  becoming 
wiser  in  our  knowledge  :  domestic  organic  waste  is  now 
being  exploited  on  broader  lines,  as  I  relate  in  subsequent 
chapters. 


CHAPTER  V 

INVENTION   IN   ITS  APPLICATION   TO   WASTE 
RECOVERY 

The  necessity  to  conserve  our  industrial  resources,  which 
is  so  pronounced  to-day,  is  acting  as  a  powerful  stimulant 
to  inventive  effort.  The  mere  circumstance  that  approved 
apparatus  exist  for  the  reclamation  of  wastes  and  are 
readily  available  to  those  of  a  thrifty  or  enterprising  turn 
of  mind  no  longer  suffices  to  meet  the  situation.  In  the 
past  we  have  been  content  to  practise  waste  recovery  along 
what  may  be  described  as  satisfactory  lines,  but  satisfactory 
only  in  so  far  as  they  represented  an  attempt  to  turn  refuse 
to  commercial  account.  In  many  instances  the  appliances 
employed  have  only  been  extemporized  and,  as  may  be 
imagined,  are  far  from  being  efficient.  They  only  enable  a 
certain  proportion  of  the  available  materials  to  be  recovered. 
In  many  instances  residues  treated  for  fats  have  carried 
away  just  as  much  of  the  essential  article  after  treatment 
as  were  actually  recovered.  In  other  words,  the  work  was 
only  half  completed  :  the  system  followed  has  been  unable 
to  give  a  higher  yield  owing  to  errors  in  its  design  and 
construction. 

Waste  recovery  as  it  should  be  practised  to-day  is  a 
science.  It  is  just  as  precise  a  science  as  the  extraction 
of  nitrogen  from  the  atmosphere,  the  smelting  of  steel,  or 
the  production  of  artificial  silk.  Hit-and-miss  methods 
may  have  sufficed  during  the  years  when  commodities  were 
cheap  and  plentiful,  but  to-day  there  is  a  world-wide 
stringency  in  the  supply  of  anything  and  everything  neces- 
sary to  commerce.  As  a  consequence  prices  are  ruling  high, 
and  so  the  practice  of  waste  recovery  along  extremely  well- 
defined  scientific  lines  is  essential. 


64  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

The  harnessing  of  science  to  this  peculiar  industry  is 
imperative  for  more  reasons  than  one.  As  the  process  of 
extraction,  say  of  fats,  is  pushed  to  its  logical  conclusion, 
the  task  becomes  more  and  more  exacting  and  expensive, 
demanding  the  employment  of  refined  methods.  It  is  far 
more  difficult  to  draw  from  the  material  the  last  ounce  of 
possibly  reclaimable  fat  than  to  whip  out  the  first  ounce. 
The  last-named  is  surrendered  readily,  but  to  recover  the 
first-named  enormous  persuasive  effort  is  entailed. 

But  it  is  the  uttermost  ounce  which  the  scientist  is 
determined  to  obtain.  Easy  conquest  does  not  appeal  to 
his  well-ordered  mind,  and  so  we  see  a  spirited  struggle  in 
progress  to  increase  efficiency.  At  the  same  time  in  attain- 
ing this  eminent  factor  the  inventor  must  keep  his  eye  and 
hand  upon  the  issue  of  cost.  If  it  is  going  to  cost  more  to 
extract  the  last  absolute  ounce  than  that  ounce  is  worth, 
then  the  effort  is  futile.  Commercialism,  which  considers 
inventive  ingenuity  merely  from  the  angle  of  pounds, 
shillings  and  pence,  or  dollars  and  cents  as  the  case  may 
be,  is  not  impressed  by  the  mere  beauty  of  any  process  or 
apparatus. 

The  financial  issue  is  surveyed  from  every  possible  angle 
— capital  outlay,  fuel  consumption,  simplicity  of  operation, 
maintenance  charges,  depreciation,  renewals,  and  labour. 
Any  one  of  these  several  factors  may  be  sufficient  to  cause 
the  refusal  of  an  advocated  process,  while  should  they  be 
experienced  cumulatively  then  the  likelihood  of  the  process 
being  adopted  is  extremely  remote.  Waste  recovery  is 
such  a  sensitive  range  of  endeavour  as  to  prevent  all  con- 
sideration along  philanthropic  lines. 

An  instance  in  point  may  be  narrated  to  indicate 
how  perplexing  and  intricate  the  problem  is.  As  is  well- 
known,  wood,  in  common  with  all  vegetation,  carries  a 
certain  proportion  of  alcohol,  a  product  in  keen  demand 
for  numerous  industries.  It  is  also  common  knowledge 
that  in  working  wood  enormous  waste  is  incurred,  notably 
in  the  form  of  sawdust.  This  fact  induced  inventors  to 
attack  the  problem  of  extracting  the  alcoholic  content 
from  this  residue.  Laboratory  experiment  confirmed  the 
practicability  of  the  project,  and  even  went  so  far  as  to 
indicate  how  the  idea  might  be  commercially  developed. 

But  there  is  a  tremendous  gulf  between  the  laboratory 


INVENTION  AND  WASTE  65 

and  the  factory.  It  was  many  years  ago  that  the  possi- 
bility of  extracting  alcohol  from  wood  first  aroused  the 
serious  attention  of  the  industrial  chemists.  They  are 
still  wrestling  with  the  problem.  Time  after  time  the  world 
is  startled  by  the  announcement  of  a  new  and  inexpensive 
process  for  the  distillation  of  alcohol  from  wood  and  the 
prospect  of  extracting  whisky  and  other  popular  beverages 
from  sawdust  excites  intense  interest.  But,  metaphorically 
speaking,  nine  days  later  a  strange  silence  is  encountered. 
The  new  process  has  vanished  from  aught  but  a  memory  of 
much  claimed  but  nothing  forthcoming.  Fortunes  have 
been  sunk  and  lost  in  the  attempts  to  solve  this  momentous 
problem,  and  it  is  probable,  from  the  state  of  knowledge 
and  the  stage  of  experiment  at  the  moment  attained,  that 
many  millions  more  will  be  expended  before  commercial 
success  is  achieved.  One  of  the  greatest  obstacles  to  the 
realization  of  the  chemist's  dream  has  been  the  extremely 
high  temperatures  to  which  resort  has  to  be  made,  which 
plays  sad  havoc  with  the  plant  involved,  and  the  charges 
incident  to  the  renewal  of  which  are  so  heavy  as  to  render 
the  financial  outlook  extremely  depressing.  Even  the  con- 
ditions of  war,  which  scouted  all  considerations  of  expense, 
have  not  carried  us  an  inch  forward.  We  built  one  factory 
to  conduct  the  distillation  of  wood  for  the  alcohol  which 
was  so  sorely  needed,  and  planned  a  second  installation. 
The  first  factory  was  promptly  abandoned  after  the  signing 
of  the  armistice,  while  the  second  factory  was  never  com- 
pleted, owing  to  the  indifferent  results  achieved  with  the 
conduct  of  the  initial  plant. 

Similar  experiences  may  be  narrated  in  many  other 
fields  of  attempted  waste  recovery.  Fortunately,  however, 
for  every  dismal  failure  recorded  a  dozen  or  more  over- 
whelming triumphs  can  be  related.  It  is  this  circumstance 
which  induces  the  experimenter  to  persevere  upon  his 
ventures  of  discovery.  But  this  is  not  the  only  satisfactory 
feature  of  success  in  this  field.  The  spirit  of  rivalry  is  so 
keen  that  the  industrial  chemist  and  the  chemical  engineer 
are  for  ever  striving  might  and  main  to  improve  the  methods 
which  they  have  evolved,  and  in  the  determination  to  secure 
the  uttermost  ounce  of  the  elusive  fat,  they  proceed  to 
extreme  lengths.  The  eternal  quest  for  improved  efficiency 
is  not  confined  to  the  extraction  of  fats  ;  it  is  equally  appli- 

5 


66  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

cable  to  the  recovery  of  other  products  in  keen  demand 
and  commanding  an  attractive  market  price,  but  I  select 
fat  as  an  example  because  it  is  familiar  to  all. 

Moreover,  in  elaborating  his  fruitful  thoughts  the  inves- 
tigator is  compelled  to  bear  in  mind  varying  conditions. 
Accordingly  he  must  adapt  his  ideas  to  the  prevailing 
requirements.  Obviously  it  would  be  inexpedient  to  con- 
centrate perfecting  effort  upon  one  definite  system.  The 
plant  involved  may  necessitate  a  capital  outlay  possible 
only  to  the  wealthy  firm  or  city,  and  utterly  beyond  the 
small  man  anxious  to  embark  upon  such  an  enterprise,  or 
be  impracticable  to  the  average  town,  to  which  the  plant, 
owing  to  the  limited  volume  of  material  to  be  handled, 
would  never  justify  the  probable  expense. 

In  these  circumstances  we  see  plants  and  methods  being 
adapted  to  varying  demands  so  that  the  reclamation  of  the 
urgently  required  fats,  oils  and  greases  may  be  pursued 
by  one  and  all.  In  a  previous  chapter,  describing  the 
recovery  of  these  commodities  from  the  swill-tubs  of  the 
army,  I  referred  to  one  system  which  is  wholly  mechanical 
in  its  operation.  In  this  instance  success  depends  essen- 
tially upon  the  centrifugal  turbine  extractor  or  "  whizzer," 
which  it  must  be  admitted  has  proved  exceedingly  attractive 
in  application.  For  this  reason  the  "  Iwel "  system,  as 
it  is  called,  has  met  with  conspicuous  success  and  wide 
application,  being  found  in  every  industry. 

But  there  is  another  system,  or  rather  wide  range  of 
systems,  known  as  the  Scott,  differing  entirely  from  the 
one  already  mentioned.  This,  too,  is  of  British  origin  and 
construction,  and  compels  attention  from  its  applicability 
to  every  possible  requirement  as  well  as  adaptabilitj^  to 
every  conceivable  condition,  from  the  factory  handling 
only  a  few  thousand  pounds  of  miscellaneous  fat-carrying 
refuse  a  day,  to  the  huge  packing  plants  to  be  found  upon 
the  American  continent,  both  North  and  South,  Australia 
and  New  Zealand,  where  the  accumulations  of  fresh  fat  are 
imposing,  and  where  the  necessity  for  prompt  big-scale 
treatment  to  secure  the  attractive  prices  ruling  for  high- 
grade  fats  is  so  obvious.  The  operations  of  the  firm  under 
review  demand  additional  attention  inasmuch  as,  through 
the  combined  efforts  of  its  chemists  and  engineers,  it  has 
been  able  to  evolve  and  perfect  a  process  which  is  distinctly 


INVENTION   AND   WASTE  67 

remarkable,  seeing  that  it  enables  all  but  i  per  cent,  of  the 
fat  contained  in  the  crude  refuse  to  be  reclaimed,  and  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  render  the  method  completely  profitable. 

The  Scott  systems,  fundamentally,  are  three  in  number. 
In  the  one  the  waste  animal  products  are  digested  with 
open  steam  in  conjunction  with  a  vacuum  ;  the  second 
method  comprises  the  dry  rendering  of  edible  fats  under 
vacuum  ;  while  the  third  practice  is  the  extraction  of  the 
grease  by  what  is  known  as  the  solvent  system.  Each 
possesses  its  individual  features,  making  direct  appeal  to 
the  situation  to  which  it  is  most  eminently  adapted,  and, 
to  a  certain  degree,  the  three  respective  methods  may  be 
said  to  represent  an  equal  number  of  progressive  strides 
towards  maximum  efficiency,  with  the  solvent  process 
constituting  the  pinnacle  of  success  so  far  achieved  in  this 
province  from  the  simple  fact  that  it  reduces  the  loss  of 
fat  to  i  per  cent,  absolute. 

However,  it  is  difficult  to  lay  down  any  hard-and-fast 
rule  concerning  the  selection  of  any  of  these  three  processes 
because,  in  deciding  a  question  of  this  character,  full  con- 
sideration must  be  given  to  the  class  of  material  to  be 
handled.  For  instance,  although  the  dry  rendering  system 
under  vacuum  is  especially  applicable  for  the  reclamation 
of  edible  fats,  it  is  not  to  say  that  the  first,  or  open  steam, 
process  is  only  adapted  to  the  production  of  non-edible  fats. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  there  are  certain  classes  of  offal  which 
are  not  suited  to  dry  steam  rendering.  The  fat  contained 
in  such  refuse  can  be  most  advantageously  extracted  only 
by  the  open  steam  process.  This  particularly  applies  to 
the  offal  produced  in  the  large  killing  establishments,  where 
such  refuse  can  be  dealt  with  in  the  fresh  condition. 

The  dry  steam  rendering  process  is  particularly  applic- 
able to  the  production  of  fine  or  high  grade  edible  fats. 
The  finest  fat  recovered  from  an  animal  source  is  that  known 
as  "  Oleo  "  margarine  or  "  Premier  Jus."  This  is  rendered 
from  the  very  finest  crude  fat  obtainable,  and  in  order  to 
ensure  super  quality  being  obtained  the  conventional  treat- 
ment is  one  demanding  extreme  care  so  that  its  inherent 
qualities  may  not  suffer  the  slightest  injury.  The  general 
practice  is  to  mince  the  raw  material  very  finely  and  then 
to  treat  it  in  hot  water-jacketed  pans  at  a  very  low  temper- 
ature, every  attention  being  observed  to  prevent  the  tem- 


68  MILLIONS   FROM   WASTE 

perature  rising  above  a  rigidly  predetermined  point.  In 
these  circumstances  it  will  readily  be  observed  that  the 
process  is  necessarily  somewhat  costly  and  occupies  appre- 
ciable time.  But  by  means  of  the  dry  rendering  process 
under  vacuum  the  raw  material  may  be  subjected  to  very 
high  temperatures,  and  that  without  the  product  being 
impaired  in  any  way.  In  fact,  it  is  equal  in  every  respect 
to  that  obtained  by  the  orthodox  process,  while,  of  course, 
it  is  far  more  expeditious  and  cheaper. 

The  plant  necessary  to  the  vacuum  system  is  simple. 
It  comprises  a  cylinder  or  boiler  called  a  digester,  into  which 
the  offal  to  be  treated  is  placed.  Under  the  wet  steam 
process  and  after  the  vessel  has  been  closed  a  vacuum  is 
created.  Open  steam  then  is  admitted  into  the  digester 
and  in  such  a  way  as  to  enable  the  steam  to  pass  upwards 
through  the  mass,  thereby  thoroughly  permeating  it.  Natur- 
ally the  hot  steam  renders  the  fat  fluid,  that  which  is  free 
running  readily  to  the  attached  tanks. 

Rendering  is  conducted  under  a  pressure  varying  from 
20  lb.  to  40  lb.  as  the  case  may  be,  but  the  lower  the  pressure 
the  better.  The  application  of  the  vacuum  to  the  process 
constitutes  the  crux  of  the  invention.  At  first  sight  the 
advantages  of  the  principle  may  not  be  readily  apparent, 
but  they  may  be  simply  explained.  In  the  first  instance 
the  creation  of  vacuum  conditions  effects  the  removal  of 
the  greatest  obstruction  to  the  influence  of  heat,  namely 
air.  If  this  be  eliminated  cooking  can  be  conducted  at  a 
much  lower  temperature  than  would  otherwise  be  practicable. 
Fat,  indeed  all  animal  matter,  carries  a  certain  proportion 
of  moisture  and  this  must  be  withdrawn  before  the  actual 
release  of  the  commodity  can  be  effected.  In  vacuum 
water  boils  at  a  temperature  below  one-half  of  that  required 
at  ordinary  atmospheric  pressure.  In  other  words,  instead 
of  the  boiling-point  of  water  being  212  degrees  Fahrenheit, 
as  is  the  case  with  the  kettle  on  the  hob,  it  will  boil  at  less 
than  106  degrees  Fahrenheit.  Consequently,  if  a  high 
vacuum  be  established  within  the  digester  the  latent  water 
can  be  converted  into  steam  to  assist  in  the  melting  process 
proper,  which  then  can  be  conducted  unhampered.  Temper- 
ature, moreover,  exercises  a  decisive  influence  upon  the 
quality  of  the  product,  this  being  very  superior  in  quality 
when  the  recovery  is  carried  out  at  a  low  degree, 


INVENTION  AND   WASTE  69 

Another  point  to  be  noted  is  that  all  noisome  odours 
which  are  thrown  off  during  cooking,  and  which  cannot 
be  avoided,  are  exhausted  from  the  vessel.  They  are  not 
allowed  to  escape  into  the  open  air,  but  are  led  to  the  furnace 
to  be  discharged  into  the  hottest  part  of  the  fire.  They 
have  to  ascend  through  the  incandescent  fuel  resting  upon 
the  fire-bars,  and,  since  they  are  not  allowed  to  become 
mixed  with  air,  must  undergo  complete  combustion.  Conse- 
quently no  pollution  of  the  atmosphere  can  possibly  result 
from  the  treatment  of  even  the  most  rancid  offal.  It 
being  impossible  to  construe  the  operation  into  a  nuisance, 
the  plant  can  be  installed  at  any  convenient  point  even 
in  a  densely-settled  area  in  safety,  because  the  system  fully 
complies  with  all  the  rigid  requirements  of  the  local  sanitary 
authorities  and  health  officers.  This  is  a  most  important 
feature  and  one  which  will  be  readily  appreciated  when 
one  recalls  the  insufferable  conditions  precipitated  by  the 
recovery  of  fats  and  greases  from  refuse  under  the  old 
systems. 

But  the  outstanding  characteristic  of  the  vacuum  system 
is  the  increased  yield  of  fat  forthcoming.  No  mechanical 
system,  whether  it  be  pressure  or  high-speed  whizzing,  can 
extend  completely  satisfactory  efficiency  results.  As  is 
well  known,  the  fat  entering  into  the  constitution  of  animal 
matter  is  contained  in  myriads  of  minute  cells  which  are 
surrounded  by  tissue.  The  walls  of  these  cells  are  exceed- 
ingly elastic  and  of  prodigious  strength.  They  may  be 
compressed  to  an  inordinately  intense  degree  in  a  press, 
or  distorted  and  stretched  by  recourse  to  centrifugal  action 
without  breaking.  It  is  this  circumstance  which  reacts 
against  a  high  recovery  of  fat  by  recourse  to  pressing  and 
whizzing  because  the  cells  cannot  be  induced  to  burst. 

When  a  vacuum  is  applied  a  totally  different  result  is 
recorded.  The  application  of  heat  causes  the  fat  and  air 
within  the  tiny  cells  to  expand,  and  in  this  manner  the 
walls  of  the  cells  become  distended  to  the  limits  of  their 
elasticity.  The  removal  of  the  surrounding  air  within  the 
vessel  by  the  vacuum  pump  completely  upsets  all  equili- 
brium. The  air  pressure  within  the  cells  is  higher  than 
that  applied  from  without,  and  consequently  there  results 
an  accentuated  expansive  effort  within  the  cells.  But  the 
tissue  has  already  been  stretched  to  its  utmost  limit,  and 


70  MILLIONS   FROM   WASTE 

so  being  unable  to  withstand  the  increased  strain  imposed 
collapses,  thus  releasing  the  imprisoned  air  and  fat.  Under 
the  vacuum  process  the  disruption  of  the  fat-carrying  cells 
is  complete,  and  this  explains  why  an  augmented  yield  of 
fat  is  obtained  by  this  method. 

Under  the  open  steam  vacuum  process  the  actual  practice 
is  to  apply  the  vacuum  three  times  at  intervals  during 
the  operation.  The  first  application  serves  to  remove  the 
obstructive  air  to  facilitate  and  expedite  cooking  of  the  con- 
tents. The  second  brings  about  the  disruption  of  the 
cells  and  the  release  of  the  fat  which  they  contain.  The 
third  application  of  the  vacuum,  which  is  effected  towards 
the  end  of  the  process,  effects  the  withdrawal  of  the  foul 
vapours  arising  from  the  digesting  operation  and  their 
discharge  into  the  fire. 

Owing  to  the  steam  being  admitted  to  the  digester  and 
being  allowed  to  come  into  direct  contact  with  the  mass, 
the  residue  upon  withdrawal  is  wet.  The  grease,  which 
has  been  rendered  fluid  in  the  process,  has  escaped  from  the 
digester  through  a  suitable  draining  pipe  into  a  tank  where 
settlement  and  clarification  are  carried  out.  But  all  the 
grease  cannot  be  recovered  in  this  manner.  A  certain 
proportion,  notwithstanding  the  disruption  of  the  fat  cells, 
is  held  up  in  the  mass  and  can  only  be  recovered  to  an  appre- 
ciable degree  by  submitting  the  residue  to  treatment  in  a 
press.  In  this  way  the  greater  part  of  the  remaining  fat 
suffers  expulsion  and  recovery.  The  wet  cakes  upon  removal 
from  the  press  then  have  to  be  dried  and  disintegrated. 

The  dry  vacuum  process,  which  is  essentially  adapted 
to  the  rendering  of  edible  fat,  has  many  advantages  over 
the  wet  steam  method.  Whilst  the  plant  employed  is 
broadly  similar  to  that  employed  in  the  process  already 
described,  there  is  one  notable  difference.  The  digester  is 
enveloped  in  an  outer  shell  or  jacket,  and  the  steam  is  circu- 
lated through  the  space  between  the  two  walls.  It  is  not 
brought  into  contact  with  the  contents  of  the  digester  at 
any  stage  of  the  process.  The  action  taking  place  within 
the  vessel  during  the  operation  is  precisely  the  same  as 
when  the  steam  is  brought  into  direct  contact  with  the 
refuse,  the  fat  being  rendered  fluid  by  the  heat  and  the 
cells  undergoing  disruption  by  the  creation  of  the  vacuum. 
A  high  vacuum  is  maintained  throughout  the  whole  render- 


INVENTION  AND   WASTE  71 

ing  process.  Consequently  the  moisture  inherent  to  the 
raw  material  is  withdrawn  as  rapidly  as  it  is  converted 
into  steam,  resulting  in  the  production  of  a  fine  edible  fat 
totally  free  from  moisture.  Moreover,  the  residue  with- 
drawn from  the  digester  at  the  end  of  the  process,  known 
as  "  crackling  "  or  "  greaves,"  is  likewise  quite  free  from 
moisture,  although,  as  in  the  case  of  that  resulting  from 
the  open  steam  process,  an  appreciable  proportion  of  fat 
is  held  up  in  the  mass  which  can  only  be  recovered  to  a 
pronounced  degree  by  the  application  of  pressure. 

The  dry  steam  or  jacketed  vacuum  process  is  especially 
adapted  to  the  treatment  of  fresh  fat  waste,  the  reclaimed 
product  of  which  is  primarily  intended  for  the  preparation 
of  edible  foodstuffs,  such  as  oleo-margarine.  By  carrying 
out  reclamation  without  bringing  the  steam  into  contact 
with  the  fat  several  distinct  advantages  are  obtained,  the 
most  important  being  the  retention  of  the  natural  properties 
of  the  fat,  and  no  loss  of  glycerine  which  otherwise  is  in- 
evitable to  a  certain  degree.  Consequently,  it  is  an  ideal 
process  for  the  treatment  of  the  "  Premier  Jus."  There  is 
no  need  to  mince  the  fat  finely,  as  in  the  orthodox  rendering 
process,  it  being  necessary  only  to  cut  the  waste  roughly 
for  charging  the  digester. 

A  special  press  has  been  devised  for  the  treatment  of 
the  crackling  or  greaves.  It  is  of  the  cage  type  which  allows 
the  fat,  during  pressure,  and  which  operation  is  carried 
out  while  the  residue  is  very  hot,  to  be  expressed  between 
the  bars  of  the  cage  to  fall  into  a  trough  for  recovery.  The 
cakes,  after  pressing,  are  dry,  excellent  in  quality,  light  in 
colour  and  of  attractive  flavour,  a  result  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  tissues  have  not  been  scorched  or  charred  in  any 
way  during  the  rendering  process.  The  greaves  constitute 
an  excellent  ingredient  for  the  preparation  of  kennel  and 
poultry  foods,  and  enter  extensively  into  the  manufacture 
of  dog-cakes.  In  a  few  instances  the  dry  greaves,  owing 
to  their  high  nutritive  value,  are  served  to  the  kennel  in 
the  straight  form  as  they  issue  from  the  press. 

While  the  dry  vacuum  process  is  certainly  efficient,  it 
does  not  fully  comply  with  the  latest  ideas  pertaining  to 
the  recovery  of  fats  from  organic  waste.  The  press  is  the 
weak  link,  because  thereby  it  is  only  possible  to  recover  a 
certain  proportion  of  the  fat  held  up  in  the  mass,  even  when 


72  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

the  cellular  construction  has  been  completely  broken  up. 
It  is  stated,  as  a  result  of  accumulated  experience,  that 
the  amount  of  fat  left  in  the  greaves  may  run  up  to  as  high 
as  10  per  cent,  of  the  original  fatty  content  of  the  offal  : 
in  many  instances  it  has  been  found  to  range  as  high  as 
20  per  cent.  The  fact  that  this  remaining  fat  defying  re- 
clamation by  pressing  must  be  relatively  high  is  evident 
from  the  readiness  with  which  certain  waste  exploiters  will 
buy  up  the  greaves,  not  to  turn  them  into  kennel  and  poultry 
foods,  but  to  submit  them  to  further  treatment  in  order 
to  wring  out  still  more  of  the  fat  which  they  carry. 

This  manifestation  of  enterprise  has  been  rendered 
possible  by  the  advance  of  the  science  of  fat  recovery  from 
offal  to  such  a  level  as  to  enable  9  per  cent,  of  the  fat  remain- 
ing in  a  10  per  cent,  greaves  to  be  extracted.  It  is  the 
prevailing  high  price  commanded  by  fats  which  renders 
such  additional  treatment  upon  an  extensive  scale  so 
attractive  and  eminently  profitable. 

The  process  in  question  is  the  Scott  solvent  recovery 
invention  to  which  I  have  referred,  and  which  represents 
the  greatest  achievement  yet  recorded  in  the  whole  science 
of  fat  reclamation  from  organic  waste.  The  process  was 
perfected  and  patented  shortly  before  the  war,  and  although 
hostilities  militated  against  its  immediate  and  rapid  develop- 
ment, thereby  delaying  the  recognition  of  its  overwhelming 
virtues,  it  is  satisfactory  to  learn  that  many  plants  operating 
upon  this  principle  have  been  laid  down,  not  only  in  this 
country,  but  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  It  is  the  process 
which  at  the  moment  is  arousing  the  most  intense  interest, 
owing  to  the  progressive  stride  which  it  represents  in  this 
field. 

The  process  is  delightfully  simple,  although  apparently 
it  involves  an  intricate  plant  and  demands  a  higher  level 
of  skilled  labour,  but  where  the  work  of  reclamation  is 
conducted  along  ambitious  lines  it  cannot  be  excelled. 
Briefly  described,  it  turns  upon  the  employment  of  benzine, 
or  some  other  equally  volatile  solvent  which,  as  we  all  know, 
will  readily  dissolve  fat  and  absorb  it.  What  can  be  done 
with  this  agent  is  familiar  to  every  housewife  who  practises 
the  removal  of  grease  spots  and  other  unsightly  marks 
from  clothing  by  the  aid  of  benzine,  while  it  is  the  medium 
whereby  dry-cleaning  is  rendered  practicable. 


INVENTION  AND   WASTE  73 

The  raw  material — condemned  meat,  offal  and  other 
organs  of  the  animal  recovered  from  the  slaughter-house 
which  possess  no  edible  value — is  charged  into  a  steam- 
jacketed  horizontal  extractor  fitted  with  stirring  gear. 
When  condemned  carcasses  are  to  be  treated  there  is  no 
need  to  carry  out  preliminary  deboning  ;  it  is  merely  neces- 
sary to  reduce  the  material  to  rough  pieces  for  convenience 
of  handling.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  steam  is  not 
brought  into  contact  with  the  mass,  but  is  circulated  through 
the  jacket  as  in  the  dry  vacuum  process. 

The  solvent  is  introduced  in  the  first  instance  in  the 
form  of  vapour,  being  passed  through  boxes  of  special 
construction,  to  pass  finally  into  the  extractor.  The  contents 
of  the  latter  being  in  a  condition  of  constant  agitation  as 
a  result  of  the  manipulation  of  the  stirring  gear,  the  benzine 
vapour  is  able  to  permeate  the  mass.  The  heat  radiated 
from  the  steam  circulating  through  the  jacket  converts  the 
moisture  present  in  the  material  into  vapour  and  with 
which  the  solvent  comes  into  contact.  Vaporization  of 
the  moisture  causes  the  solvent  itself  to  condense  to  a  certain 
degree,  and  in  the  liquid  form  it  dissolves  out  the  grease. 
The  process  is  continued  until  the  bulk  of  the  moisture 
has  been  eliminated,  when  the  grease  and  solvent  are  with- 
drawn. When  the  grease  has  been  fully  extracted  down 
to  a  limit  which  will  result  in  a  dry  meat-meal,  containing 
about  i  per  cent,  of  grease,  the  benzine  is  steamed  off  in 
the  usual  manner.  The  benzine  itself  is  recovered  because 
it  is  only  permitted  to  work  in  a  closed  circuit,  and,  after 
fulfilling  its  purpose,  is  passed  to  a  still  to  be  cleaned  and 
purified,  after  which  it  is  again  passed  to  the  extractor  to 
repeat  the  cycle  of  operation. 

The  process,  it  will  be  observed,  is  continuous,  while  the 
benzine  may  be  used  over  and  over  again.  All  that  is 
required  is  to  place  a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  solvent  into 
the  circuit  to  carry  out  the  operation  with  the  essential 
efficiency.  Naturally,  the  quantity  involved  varies  with 
the  size  of  the  plant  and  the  work  to  be  fulfilled,  but  it  may 
run  up  to  5,000  or  more  gallons.  The  plant  is  generally  laid 
out  upon  the  unit  principle,  which  is  the  most  satisfactory, 
because  it  facilitates  the  adaptation  of  the  installation  to 
the  volume  of  work  in  hand.  One  or  more  units  can  be 
shut  down  during  the  "  off  "  period,  allowing  the  remainder 


74  MILLIONS  FROM  WASTE 

to  be  worked  up  to  their  full  capacity,  which,  of  course,  is 
the  most  efficient  and  economical  method.  The  losses  of 
benzine  are  very  low — not  exceeding  i  per  cent,  of  the 
weight  of  the  raw  material  treated.  In  fact,  there  are  many 
installations  in  operation  where,  over  a  period  of  one  year, 
the  benzine  loss  recorded  is  actually  below  i  per  cent.  This 
factor  is  vitally  influenced  by  the  care  and  attention  bestowed 
upon  the  plant.  If  it  be  carefully  tended,  all  joints  being 
kept  in  the  tightly  packed  condition,  and  the  condenser 
maintained  in  a  high  degree  of  efficiency,  the  benzine  loss 
may  be  reduced  to  an  infinitesimal  degree,  the  value  thereof 
representing  but  an  insignificant  fraction  of  the  value  of 
the  increased  yield  of  oil  and  fat. 

The  solvent  acts  upon  the  grease  only.  It  does  not 
affect  in  any  way  the  gelatinous  material,  and,  consequently, 
the  nitrogenous  or  ammonia  value  of  the  ultimate  meal  is 
considerably  enhanced  as  compared  with  the  results  achieved 
with  the  digesting  plant.  The  meal  is  discharged  from  the 
extractor  in  a  dry  crisp  condition  ready  for  immediate 
grinding,  and  is  admirably  adapted  for  poultry  and  cattle 
feeding.     No  traces  of  the  benzine  remain. 

The  bones  may  be  ground  immediately,  if  desired,  but 
if  these  should  be  forthcoming  in  sufficient  quantity  they 
should  be  passed  on  to  the  glue  and  gelatine  plant.  There 
is  no  necessity  to  submit  them  to  a  further  degreasing  process, 
because  this  has  been  completed  in  the  one  operation  in  the 
extractor.  As  a  rule,  however,  with  installations  devoted 
to  the  treatment  of  condemned  meat  and  other  offal,  the 
bones  are  not  forthcoming  in  sufficient  quantities  to  justify 
the  attachment  of  a  glue  recovery  plant  although,  of  course, 
they  can  be  sold  to  other  works  specializing  in  this  work. 
It  is  merely  a  question  as  to  whether  it  would  pay  to  transport 
the  degreased  bones  to  the  glue  works.  If  not,  they  can  be 
ground  up  to  be  utilized  as  fertilizer,  for  which,  it  is  needless 
to  say,  a  good  price  can  be  obtained. 

The  recovery  of  fat  down  to  I  per  cent,  of  that  contained 
in  the  crude  material  does  not  constitute  the  only  out- 
standing advantage  of  the  solvent  extraction  process.  It 
enables  the  whole  of  the  operations  to  be  condensed  into 
one  task,  completely  dispensing  with  all  auxiliary  apparatus. 
The  refuse  is  merely  charged  into  the  extractor  and  with- 
drawn in  the  form  of  powder,  and,  if  condemned  carcasses 


INVENTION  AND  WASTE  75 

have  been  exploited,  bone  as  well.  What  this  means  may 
readily  be  realized.  Under  the  open  steam  digesting  system 
— even  with  the  wet  and  dry  vacuum  systems  to  a  lesser 
degree — the  refuse  must  first  be  cooked.  The  material 
upon  withdrawal  from  the  digester  must  be  passed  through 
the  press,  after  which  treatment  it  has  to  be  disintegrated 
and  dried.  If  the  reclamation  of  the  gelatinous  or  "  stick  " 
liquor,  as  it  is  called,  be  part  of  the  process  this  also  demands 
handling.  Thus  one  may  safely  anticipate  having  to  conform 
with  five  distinct  and  separate  operations,  involving  inter- 
mediate handling  and  supplementary  plant,  while  the  loss 
of  fat  in  passing  from  stage  to  stage  is  far  heavier  than 
may  possibly  be  imagined.  But,  with  the  solvent  extraction 
process,  the  numerous  above-mentioned  operations  are 
resolved  into  one,  and  one  only — the  charging  of  the  ex- 
tractor with  the  refuse.  The  saving  in  labour  by  the  elimin- 
ation of  all  interhandling  is  obvious,  which  in  these  days 
of  enhanced  wage  costs  demands  consideration,  while  there 
are  no  intermediate  losses  of  oil.  In  so  far  as  saving  of 
time  is  concerned  there  is  little,  if  any,  difference.  Under 
the  solvent  extraction  method  a  period  of  eight  to  ten  hours 
is  required  to  deal  completely  with  a  charge  of  4,500  to 
9,000  lb. 

The  fruits  accruing  from  this  latest  manifestation  of 
ingenuity  in  connection  with  the  reclamation  of  waste  may 
be  tersely  emphasized.  The  reclamation  of  the  fat  down 
to  1  per  cent,  being  accepted,  it  may  also  prove  interesting 
to  indicate  how  effectively  the  nitrogenous  or  ammonia 
value  of  the  product  is  preserved.  The  following  represents 
a  typical  analysis  of  a  meat  meal,  which,  it  should  be  pointed 
out,  contains  no  bone  whatever.     The  figures  are  : — 

Per  cent. 

Tribasic  phosphate  of  lime  (superphosphate)  . .  . .       3*25 

Nitrogen  .  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..      11*37 

^=ammonia..  ..  ..  ..  ..      I3"8i 

At  the  large  cattle-slaughtering  establishments  of  North 
and  South  America,  and  at  the  sheep-killing  stations  in 
Australia  and  New  Zealand,  the  residues  from  which  the 
edible  fat  has  been  recovered  by  the  open  steam  process 
are  turned  over  to  the  solvent  extraction  plants  which  have 
now  been  introduced  to  form  an  integral  part  of  the  waste- 


76  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

recovery  system,  the  value  of  the  invention  being  fully 
appreciated.  At  first  the  practice  was  to  dry  the  residues 
from  the  digesters  before  committing  them  to  the  extraction 
plant,  but  since  it  was  found  superfluous  to  carry  out  such 
a  preliminary,  the  residue  is  turned  over  from  the  open  steam 
digester  where  the  edible  fats  are  obtained  to  the  solvent 
extraction  plant,  the  idea  of  course  being  to  secure  the 
proportion  of  fat  escaping  recovery  in  the  digester.  In  this 
manner  99  per  cent,  of  the  fat  contained  in  the  crude  waste 
is  obtained,  but  the  proportion  reclaimed  from  the  practice 
of  the  solvent  extraction  process  is  set  aside  for  manufac- 
turing purposes — conversion  into  soap  and  other  utilitarian 
commodities. 

In  the  course  of  digesting  the  fresh  fat  with  open  steam 
a  considerable  quantity  of  the  "  stick  "  liquor  is  precipi- 
tated, and  its  recovery  for  size  is  fully  justified.  In  the 
crude  form  this  liquor  is  somewhat  weak,  but  by  means 
of  the  Scott  multiple-effect  vacuum  evaporating  plant  it 
can  be  concentrated  to  any  required  degree  of  density. 
This  product  is  blended  with  the  meat-meal  from  the  solvent 
extraction  plant  in  a  suitable  vessel  and  is  then  dried  to  a 
powder,  the  ultimate  meal  being  high  in  ammonia. 

In  the  case  of  the  offal  which  is  not  suitable  for  the 
production  of  an  edible  fat,  recourse  to  the  open  steam 
digester  is  eliminated.  The  refuse,  along  with  the  condemned 
meat,  is  consigned  directly  to  the  extraction  plant  to  be 
dealt  with  in  one  operation.  A  similar  practice  is  followed 
at  the  large  pig-killing  establishments.  At  one  installation 
in  South  America,  where  there  is  an  impressive  illustration 
of  British  ingenuity  and  enterprise  in  regard  to  waste 
recovery  upon  the  Scott  principle,  the  tallow  produced  is 
immediately  dispatched  to  the  adjoining  soap  works — also 
a  British  installation — where  the  glycerine  is  recovered  and 
soap  is  produced.  In  this  instance  therefore  we  have  a 
powerful  example  of  a  self-contained  establishment  com- 
pletely equipped  for  the  recovery  of  the  whole  of  the  by- 
products incurred  in  the  course  of  its  normal  operations 
and  to  the  utmost  advantage. 

The  Germans  have  been  extremely  active  in  advancing 
the  possibilities  of  the  solvent  extraction  process.  Several 
large  plants  are  in  operation  in  the  Fatherland,  of  which  we 
heard  a  good  deal  during  the  war,  but  the  character  of  the 


INVENTION  AND  WASTE  77 

operations  of  which  were  grossly  misrepresented  and  exag- 
gerated. Those  behind  the  lines  were  reserved  exclusively 
for  the  disposal  of  fallen  horses  as  well  as  the  offal  and  other 
wastes  resulting  from  the  feeding  of  the  troops.  The  fat, 
immediately  upon  its  extraction,  was  treated  for  its  glycerine, 
which  was  dispatched  to  the  explosive  manufactories  in 
Germany,  while  the  residues  were  converted  into  soap  upon 
the  spot.  This  practice  was  followed  because  the  glycerine 
was  the  staple  in  most  urgent  demand,  and  the  transport 
of  which  was  far  simpler  than  the  movement  of  the  crude 
reclaimed  fats.  So  far  as  soap  was  concerned  the  German 
soldiers,  even  up  to  the  front  lines,  had  little  or  no  room  for 
complaint,  for  the  simple  reason  that  it  was  prepared  in 
their  midst  at  the  plants  which  were  installed  within  easy 
access  of  the  centres  of  suitable  raw  material  supply. 

British  manufacturers,  although  somewhat  conservative, 
are  becoming  alive  to  the  fact  that  only  by  the  solvent 
extraction  process  can  the  utmost  wealth  be  won  from  fats 
derived  from  waste  materials,  and  many  interesting  expres- 
sions of  enterprise  in  this  direction  may  be  recorded.  For 
instance,  the  manufacture  of  maize  flour  has  made  decided 
strides  in  these  islands  during  the  past  five  years,  doubtless 
owing  to  the  deficiency  in  connection  with  the  wheaten 
product.  However,  before  this  grain  can  be  converted  into 
the  farinaceous  form  the  germ  must  be  extracted,  other- 
wise the  keeping  qualities  of  the  flour  are  seriously  impaired. 
But,  seeing  that  the  germ  represents  approximately  20  per 
cent,  of  the  whole  grain,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  industry 
has  to  face  a  loss  of  one-fifth  of  its  raw  material  in  preparing 
the  flour — an  imposing  quantity.  However,  the  germ  is 
rich  in  oil,  this  constituting  approximately  20  per  cent,  of 
its  bulk.  The  demand  for  oil,  particularly  those  of  vegetable 
origin,  is  such  that  the  maize  germ,  instead  of  being  turned 
over  directly  to  cattle,  is  now  being  exploited  for  its  oil. 
By  the  solvent  extraction  process  99  per  cent,  of  this  available 
20  per  cent,  of  oil  is  being  extracted,  the  resultant  meal 
thus  being  virtually  free  of  oil. 

When  the  idea  was  first  taken  in  hand  it  was  maintained 
that  the  withdrawal  of  the  oil  would  imperil  the  feeding 
qualities  of  the  meal  residue.  This  being  conclusively 
disproved  it  was  then  argued  that  the  employment  of  benzine 
for  the  purpose  would  depreciate  its  cattle-food  value,  the 


78  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

idea  doubtless  being  entertained  that  it  must  be  associated 
with  a  certain  benzine  flavour  from  coming  into  contact 
with  the  solvent.  But  here  again  practice  did  not  coincide 
with  precept,  because  horses  will  devour  the  meal,  freshly 
drawn  from  the  extractor,  with  avidity,  and  look  round  for 
more,  proving  very  convincingly  that  the  benzine  is  com- 
pletely exhausted  from  the  extractor  after  having  fulfilled 
its  designed  function.  Experience  has  shown  that  meal 
made  from  the  de-oiled  maize  germ  is  every  whit  as  good 
and  as  nourishing  as,  if  not  actually  superior  to,  that  which 
has  not  been  subjected  to  the  oil-recovery  process. 

The  solvent  extraction  process  has  proved  to  be  of  in- 
calculable value  to  the  firms  specializing  in  the  dry-cleaning 
of  clothes,  fabrics,  and  textiles  in  general.  When  the  articles 
are  likely  to  be  charged  with  appreciable  quantities  of  dirt, 
such  as  carpets,  they  are  first  subjected  to  a  dusting  treat- 
ment which  removes  the  superfluous  or  free  dirt.  Wearing 
apparel,  except  in  a  few  instances,  does  not  require  sub- 
mission to  this  preliminary  operation  and  so  is  passed  into 
the  washing  machine,  which  contains  only  benzine,  together 
with  a  slight  proportion  of  ammoniacal  liquor.  The  garments 
are  passed  through  several  successive  washings  and  rinsings 
in  various  machines,  to  be  submitted  finally  to  the  hydro- 
extractor,  where  practically  the  whole  of  the  benzine  is 
recovered,  the  goods  being  delivered  practically  dry.  But 
to  be  positive  upon  this  point  they  are  hung  for  three  or 
four  hours  in  a  drying  room.  The  articles  are  then  examined 
for  any  stains,  such  as  blood  and  grease  marks,  which  have 
resisted  elimination  in  the  mechanical  cleaning  process. 
These  are  removed  by  hand — "  hand-spotting  "  as  it  is 
called,  either  with  water,  or  with  benzine  and  a  little  soluble 
soap  and  a  brush. 

The  dirt  and  other  deleterious  matter  removed  by  the 
benzine  in  the  washing  and  rinsing  machines  is  separated 
from  the  solvent,  which  undergoes  a  simple  treatment, 
bringing  about  its  complete  purification,  when  it  is  returned 
to  the  service-tanks  for  further  use.  The  process  is  one 
of  continuous  distillation,  the  benzine,  as  previously  men- 
tioned, being  used  over  and  over  again,  it  only  being  neces- 
sary to  add  certain  quantities  from  time  to  time  to  remedy 
the  unavoidable  losses  incurred.  The  wastage  of  benzine 
averages  about  15  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  goods  treated. 


INVENTION   AND   WASTE  79 

Seeing  that  about  4,500  gallons  may  pass  hourly  through 
the  machines  and  the  circuit,  the  loss  is  relatively  low.  The 
quantity  of  dirt  removed,  despite  the  thoroughness  of  the 
process,  is  comparatively  trifling. 

One  interesting  phase  of  the  dry-cleaning  process  deserves 
mention,  if  only  to  bring  home  the  assiduity  with  which 
the  reclamation  of  grease  from  every  conceivable  source  is 
now  being  prosecuted.  Some  of  the  firms  are  devoting 
attention  to  the  separation  of  the  grease  removed  from  the 
clothes  by  the  benzine.  Seeing  that  the  only  likely  con- 
tribution of  grease  is  that  removed  from  the  hands  or  other 
part  of  the  body  coming  into  contact  with  the  fabric,  and 
that  the  grease  in  question  is  only  natural  perspiration, 
it  will  be  seen  that,  under  the  most  favourable  conditions, 
such  deposit  must  necessarily  be  exceedingly  trifling.  That 
it  should  be  deemed  worthy  of  recovery  seems  almost  in- 
credible. But  it  is  being  done,  though  the  yield  is  low, 
and  it  is  proving  profitable. 

Probably  no  other  waste  is  to  be  found  in  such  a  multi- 
plicity of  forms  and  in  such  unexpected  quarters  as  that 
capable  of  yielding  grease,  but  that  it  should  pay  to  recover 
natural  perspiration  to  assist  in  the  lubrication  of  a  railway 
locomotive,  or  some  other  piece  of  machinery,  serves  to 
emphasize  the  extremely  fine  limits  to  which  fat-reclamation 
science  has  been  carried.  It  is  admitted  that,  in  the  majority 
of  cases,  the  possible  yields  are  so  small  as  to  render  reclam- 
ation absolutely  impossible  by  any  but  the  solvent  extraction 
process,  which  undoubtedly  constitutes  the  highest  testimony 
to  the  efficiency  and  value  of  this  wonderful  British  invention 
it  is  possible  to  advance. 


CHAPTER  VI 

SAVING   THE   SCRAP   FROM   THE   SEA 

If  the  human  race  be  extravagant  in  one,  more  than  in  any 
other  direction,  it  is  undoubtedly  in  connection  with  the 
utilization  of  the  harvests  of  the  sea.  It  is  a  failing  as 
strongly  asserted  by  the  primitive  as  by  the  cultured  races. 
The  aborigine,  when  there  is  a  big  run,  will  trap  as  many 
fish  as  he  can,  not  for  consumption,  but  apparently  for 
the  mere  sake  of  catching  his  prey.  He  will  select  what 
he  requires  and  leave  the  remainder  to  rot.  His  civilized 
brother  pursues  a  broadly  similar  course,  only  in  this  event 
decomposition  may  not  be  permitted  to  run  its  course  without 
fulfilling  a  beneficial  purpose.  The  process  can  be  harnessed, 
as  it  were,  to  a  more  or  less  useful  function. 

Improvidence  in  the  consumption  of  fish  is  particularly 
noticeable  among  those  nations  which  are  able  to  point  to 
an  extensive  salt-water  front,  combined  with  a  densely- 
settled  population  within  a  relatively  small  area.  It  becomes 
accentuated  when  the  country  is  possessed  of  an  intricate 
and  excellent  system  of  rapid  inland  transportation,  allow- 
ing the  prompt  movement  of  the  catches  from  the  points 
of  landing  to  the  centres  of  consumption. 

Such  a  country  is  Great  Britain.  With  us  fish  is  an 
exceedingly  cheap  food  and  one  which,  normally,  is  readily 
procurable  in  adequate  quantities.  The  "  long  haul  "  by 
rail  occasions  no  apprehensions,  inasmuch  as  the  railway 
transport  problem,  so  far  as  fish  is  concerned,  has  been 
magnificently  solved,  it  being  possible  to  move  consign- 
ments four  hundred,  even  six  hundred  miles  within  a  few 
hours. 

The  sea's  contribution  to  the  table  is  prolific.  At  the 
same  time  it   is   variable.     This   factor  in  itself  conduces 

BO 


THE   SCRAP   FROM  THE   SEA  81 

towards  pronounced  wastage.  We  seem  to  have  failed 
lamentably  in  our  efforts  to  cope  with  the  alternating  spells 
of  plenty  and  relative  scarcity  in  a  scientific  manner.  We 
have  not  mastered  the  adjustment  of  seasonal  gluts,  arising 
from  the  periodic  massed  movements  of  the  fish,  to  shortages 
in  order  to  maintain  a  steady  and  uniform  supply  the  whole 
year  round.  In  view  of  the  immense  strides  which  have 
been  made  in  the  art  of  preserving  perishable  foodstuffs, 
this  deficiency  is  certainly  somewhat  remarkable. 

The  extremely  low  prices  at  which  the  bulk  of  the  food 
from  the  sea,  particularly  of  herring  and  sprat — occasionally 
mackerel — is  available,  are  primarily  responsible  for  the 
extravagance  which  rules.  This  state  of  affairs  offers  another 
interesting  illustration  of  the  fact  that  extremely  cheap 
living  promotes  waste.  We  need  only  to  recall  the  experi- 
ence of  the  war  to  assure  ourselves  upon  this  point.  Under 
the  system  of  price  control,  coupled  with  abnormally  high 
rates,  fish  purchases  had  to  be  conducted  by  the  trade  with 
extreme  caution  to  obviate  financial  losses,  while,  similarly, 
the  consumer  was  compelled  to  be  more  economic  and  less 
fastidious  in  his,  or  her,  tastes.  Under  such  conditions 
far  less  of  the  single  fish  was  wasted,  while  greater  ingenuity 
was  exercised  in  the  preparation  of  the  less  attractive  edible 
portions  for  the  table. 

Nevertheless,  no  matter  how  extreme  the  care  or  economy 
manifested,  a  certain  degree  of  wastage  is  unavoidable. 
For  the  most  part  the  offal,  which  in  itself  is  appreciable 
in  volume,  is  regarded  as  irreclaimable  and  valueless  except 
as  a  fertilizer.  But  this  reasoning  is  fallacious.  Fish-waste 
is  capable  of  furnishing  raw  material  in  several  forms  to 
feed  other  industries.  As  yet  this  notable  circumstance 
has  not  become  fully  appreciated  in  these  islands,  the 
practicability  of  using  such  refuse  only  having  been  estab- 
lished during  the  past  few  years. 

Ability  to  turn  fish  offal  to  distinct  profitable  advan- 
tage not  only  solves  the  problem  in  its  economic  aspect, 
but  at  the  same  time  indicates  a  promising  outlook  for 
glut  catches  and  to  which  the  ordinary  markets  are  often 
denied.  In  this  country  the  conventional  disposal  of  surplus 
fish  is  decidedly  deplorable  for  the  reason  that  it  follows 
the  line  of  least  resistance.  A  glut  or  late  catch  is  generally 
sold  at  an  absurd  price  in  bulk  to  serve  merely  as  manure. 

6 


82  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

If  the  fish  could  be  turned  directly  into  the  soil  such  a 
use  might  not  be  exposed  to  severe  condemnation,  although 
it  is  to  be  deprecated  because  it  represents  a  serious  mis- 
use of  valuable  food.  But,  as  a  rule,  this  cannot  be  conducted 
with  the  essential  promptitude  for  obvious  reasons.  Then 
the  farmer  suffers  a  heav}^  loss.  Vigilant  gulls  and  other 
birds  having  a  well-defined  penchant  for  fish  diet  raid  the 
land  to  enjoy  a  Gargantuan  feast  with  the  minimum  of 
effort  on  their  part.  The  birds  will  even  follow  a  train,  or 
road  wagons,  bearing  a  manurial  consignment  of  their 
food,  for  miles  from  the  point  of  landing  and  then,  after 
it  has  been  dumped,  will  swoop  down  to  gorge  themselves 
to  the  full.  In  many  instances  a  farmer  has  been  known 
to  lose  at  least  50  per  cent,  of  his  purchase  in  this  manner. 
He  may  essay  alert  and  effective  measures  to  combat  the 
birds'  attacks,  but  he  will  find  it  an  unequal  contest.  In 
one  instance,  which  came  before  my  notice,  the  insatiable 
birds,  catching  sight  of  one  or  two  open  trucks  laden  with 
a  freshly-landed  catch  en  route  to  the  land,  attacked  the 
wagons  so  vigorously  as  to  cause  a  very  perceptible  shrink- 
age in  the  load  before  it  reached  its  destination.  Another 
farmer,  who  had  been  persuaded  to  buy  two  or  three  truck- 
loads  of  freshly-landed  fish  just  because  it  was  cheap,  sub- 
sequently expressed  his  doubt  as  to  whether  he  had  driven 
a  good  bargain  after  all.  The  birds  attacked  the  field  over 
which  the  loads  were  distributed  in  such  overwhelming 
numbers  as  to  prompt  the  opinion  that  the  field  really  con- 
tained more  gulls  than  fish  !  So,  after  all,  it  is  extremely 
questionable  whether  the  purchase  of  a  bumper  catch  for 
use  as  a  fertilizer  is  really  such  a  bargain  as  it  may  appear 
from  a  cursory  reflection. 

In  our  large  cities  and  towns  the  treatment  of  fish  offal 
and  surplus  supplies  drawn  from  the  markets,  stores,  and 
retail  shops,  as  well  as  the  hotels,  restaurants,  and  clubs, 
for  industrial  exploitation,  should  present  no  difficulty 
whatever.  It  is  an  offal  apart  and  a  noisome  one.  Its 
susceptibility  to  rapid  decomposition  and  the  emission  of 
obnoxious  odours  during  the  process  demand  its  prompt 
removal.  It  cannot  be  handled  with  other  refuse  owing  to 
its  offensiveness.  Consequently  the  system  of  special  col- 
lection by  vehicles  of  the  closed  tank  type  has  become  the 
general  practice.     In  this  manner  the  disconcerting  factor 


THE  SCRAP  FROM  THE   SEA  83 

pertaining  to  the  utilization  of  organic  waste — effective 
segregation  at  the  source — is  assured. 

Although,  so  far  as  we  are  concerned,  the  record  of 
practical  achievements  concerning  the  industrial  utilization 
of  fish-waste  is  slender,  owing  to  the  few  firms  having  been 
persuaded  to  embrace  this  phase  of  trading,  it  is  consoling 
to  learn  that  we  possess  what  may  be  described  as  the  leading 
authorities  competent  to  deal  with  this  issue  in  all  its  vary- 
ing aspects,  and  to  be  equipped  with  the  best  approved 
facilities  for  conducting  this  work  along  the  latest  and 
most  promising  lines.  There  is  one  firm  in  particular  which 
has  built  up  a  unique  reputation  in  this  direction,  having 
been  responsible  for  the  design  and  construction,  as  well  as 
installation,  of  the  largest  fish-waste  reclamation  plants  in 
operation  throughout  the  world.  Some  of  these  equipments 
are  most  elaborate  in  character,  and  their  very  dimensions, 
activity,  scale  of  operations  and  prosperity,  serve  to  demon- 
strate, in  the  most  convincing  manner,  the  enormous  wealth 
capable  of  being  won  from  fish  scrap  when  the  task  is  con- 
ducted along  the  lines  advanced  by  scientific  development. 
The  British  firm  in  question,  to  whose  apparatus  I  have 
devoted  extensive  description  in  a  previous  chapter,  has 
been  responsible  for  the  complete  installations  forming  part 
and  parcel  of  the  huge  canneries  scattered  along  the  western 
seaboard  of  the  North  American  continent. 

It  somewhat  redeems  our  own  short-sightedness  and  lack 
of  enterprise  to  know  that  we  have  a  firm  in  our  midst 
which  has  achieved  many  distinct  triumphs  in  the  great 
issue  of  waste  reclamation.  It  retains  an  imposing  staff 
of  highly-trained  chemists  who  have  become  specialists  in 
this  privileged  province,  and  they  have  devoted  especial 
attention  to  the  exploitation  of  fish-scrap  in  the  anticipation 
that  this  may  yet  develop  into  a  pretentious  British  industry. 
The  presiding  genius  of  this  organization  has  also  associated 
himself  intimately  with  the  problem  from  the  severely 
scientific  side,  as  well  as  becoming  thoroughly  familiarized 
with  the  latest  methods  as  practised  in  Germany,  Scandinavia, 
and  other  countries  in  order  to  reap  full  advantage  from  the 
lessons  which  they  are  able  to  extend  in  point  of  equipment 
and  practice.  In  the  opinion  of  this  active-minded  and 
enterprising  authority  we  have  nothing  to  learn  from  the 
foreigner  either  in  point  of  processes,  plant,  or  efficiency. 


84  MILLIONS  FROM  WASTE 

We  merely  lack  the  necessary  imagination,  initiative,  and 
commercial  acumen  to  be  able  to  reap  the  full  financial  and 
trading  harvest  to  be  gathered  from  the  exploitation  of  fish- 
scrap.  While  we  are  apathetic  and  backward  in  this  con- 
nection our  Dominions  are  alert  and  astute.  We  need  only 
to  turn  to  the  extensive  installation  recently  laid  down  in 
Australia — a  model  of  its  type — and  which  was  completed 
by  the  firm  in  question,  to  grasp  what  can  be  accomplished 
in  this  peculiar  field. 

It  was  extremely  fortunate  for  us,  as  a  nation,  to  be 
possessed  of  the  knowledge  and  creative  resources  of  a 
progressive  firm.  During  the  war,  when  the  economic 
conditions  became  so  tense,  the  question  of  the  economic 
disposal  of  fish-waste  to  full  commercial  advantage  suddenly 
assumed  an  unexpected  significance.  Specific  raw  materials 
were  urgently  demanded,  and  it  was  decided  to  search 
sedulously  for  additional  domestic  sources  of  supply.  In 
the  conduct  of  these  investigations  the  potentialities  of 
fish-scrap  were  forced  to  the  forefront.  The  enemy  was 
exploiting  this  field  to  its  absolute  limits,  so  why  should  we 
continue  to  ignore  it  ?  Cognizant  of  the  precise  possibilities 
of  this  industry  and  the  financial  attractions  which  it  pos- 
sessed the  head  of  the  firm  of  which  I  have  written  expressed 
his  readiness  to  extend  all  assistance  in  his  power.  His 
knowledge  of  the  craft,  together  with  that  of  what  the 
enemy  could  and  could  not  do,  proved  invaluable,  and 
enabled  us  to  place  the  recovery  of  the  wealth  from  this 
waste  upon  a  solid  foundation,  and  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  allow  of  its  indefinite  expansion  in  the  future. 

So  far  as  turning  fish-scrap  to  commercial  account  has 
been  concerned  in  these  islands  the  axiom  pertaining  to  the 
prophet  and  his  own  country  has  not  been  wholly  applicable. 
The  Germans  endeavoured  to  establish  an  industry  upon 
this  raw  material  among  us  but  signally  failed.  One  or  two 
small  plants  were  laid  down  along  the  broad  lines  in  vogue 
upon  the  other  side  of  the  North  Sea,  but  they  fell  so  far 
short  of  expectations  or  requirements,  and  were  so  strikingly 
inferior  to  British  thought  as  to  fall  into  disuse.  They  have 
long  since  been  broken  up. 

The  Teuton,  however,  was  not  solicitous  of  the  welfare 
of  the  British  nation  in  exploiting  British  fish-waste.  He 
was  merely  prompted  to  plant  himself  here  because  the 


THE   SCRAP  FROM  THE  SEA  85 

necessary  refuse — raw  material  from  his  point  of  view — 
was  obtainable  in  such  huge  quantities  and  at  a  low  figure. 
The  output  was  shipped  to  Germany,  where  it  commanded 
an  attractive  price  and  was  in  keen  demand.  The  spurned 
and  rejected  of  Britain  became  the  highly  prized  of  Germany. 

Fish-waste  falls  into  two  broad  classes,  which  are  yet 
somewhat  sharply  defined.  These  are  white  fish  and  oily 
offal  respectively,  the  herring  being  the  best  example  of 
the  latter  category.  Consequently,  to  conduct  fish-waste 
reclamation  and  exploitation  for  the  by-products  upon  a 
sufficiently  comprehensive  scale  in  these  islands  it  would 
be  necessary  to  separate  the  offal  into  the  two  distinctive 
classifications  at  the  source.  However,  this  would  not  be 
such  a  perplexing  problem  as  it  might  appear  at  first  sight. 
Such  segregation  is  imperative  for  specific  technical  reasons, 
while  one  must  also  remember  that  the  salt  content  of  the 
offal  varies  widely  in  the  two  classes  of  fish. 

Scrap  of  this  character  can  be  induced  to  yield  three 
commercial  products  as  a  result  of  inexpensive  treatment. 
They  are  respectively  meal  for  poultry  and  cattle,  oil,  and 
fertilizer.  A  fourth  commodity  might  be  included,  namely, 
fish-glue.  Hitherto  we  have  been  content  to  draw  upon 
other  countries  for  our  supplies  of  this  article,  although 
abundant  raw  material  for  its  production  has  always  been 
readily  obtainable.  But  manufacture  was  doubtless  re- 
garded as  being  extremely  speculative  for  the  simple  reason 
that  the  demand  for  this  article  was  severely  limited.  For 
some  reason  or  other  fish-glue,  though  extensively  used  by 
the  peoples  of  other  nations,  has  never  been  regarded  with 
pronounced  favour  in  British  circles  although  it  cannot 
be  excelled  as  an  adhesive.  Probably  its  peculiarly  pungent 
odour  has  been  responsible  for  our  indifferent  appreciation 
of  its  virtues.  One  or  two  small  factories  were  equipped 
to  conduct  domestic  manufacture,  but  they  were  far  from 
being  pretentious  in  their  scale  of  operation. 

Fish-glue  has  attained  its  greatest  vogue  in  Germany, 
Scandinavia,  Canada,  and  the  United  States  of  America — 
the  last-named  more  particularly.  Yet  there  is  no  reason 
why  it  should  not  become  equally  popular  here.  All  that 
is  required  is  to  enlighten  the  community  concerning  its 
properties,  and  here  is  a  grand  opportunity  for  propaganda 
in  support  of  a  new  industry.     There  is  no  secret  associated 


86  MILLIONS   FROM   WASTE 

with  its  production  as  might  possibly  be  imagined.  The 
quality  most  essential  to  secure  its  widespread  appreciation 
is  merely  a  display  of  grim  energy,  push,  and  go.  It  is  not 
a  case  of  being  called  upon  to  advance  the  claims  of  an 
entirety  new  product.  It  is  known  more  or  less  throughout 
the  country  from  the  circumstance  that  it  is  being  exploited 
in  varying  degree  throughout  the  world.  In  these  circum- 
stances the  manufacture  of  British  fish-glue  from  British 
fish-waste  presents  enormous  possibilities,  capable  of  illimit- 
able development. 

There  are  signs  that  we  are  bestirring  ourselves  in  this 
direction.  Heretofore  fish-glue  has  always  been  made 
from  the  skins  of  white  fish.  It  has  now  been  suggested 
that,  in  this  country,  the  bones  might  be  put  to  similar 
account,  the  gummy  content  thereof  being  quite  pronounced. 
Expert  opinion  favours  the  contention  that  such  might 
be  carried  out  to  advantage,  but  there  is  one  supreme  diffi- 
culty— the  adequate  supply  of  the  essential  bones.  They 
could  be  drawn  from  the  filleting  trade,  but  the  extent  of 
this  supply  is  somewhat  problematical.  Fish-bones  as  such 
have  not  yet  attained  the  high  estate  of  recognition  as  a 
distinct  article  of  commerce.  Nevertheless  a  possible  way 
out  of  this  difficulty  has  been  suggested.  It  should  be 
quite  practicable,  when  employing  the  oil  extraction  process 
to  which  I  refer  later,  to  sift  out  the  larger  bones  before 
submitting  the  dry  residue  to  the  grinding  process.  In 
this  way  it  would  be  possible  to  secure  a  ready  supply 
of  the  necessary  raw  material  for  the  production  of 
the  glue. 

It  has  also  been  suggested  in  certain  home  circles  that 
herring  offal  might  be  treated  in  such  a  way  as  to  yield 
fish-glue,  but  this  represents  a  venture  upon  untrodden 
ground.  From  such  a  statement  it  must  not  be  inferred 
that  this  residue  could  not  be  induced  to  yield  the  substance 
desired,  but  so  far  as  is  known  the  offal  has  never  been 
devoted  to  this  purpose.  Nevertheless,  the  suggestion  is 
to  be  applauded.  It  is  indicative  of  the  new  spirit  attending 
the  disposal  of  fish  offal  and  goes  to  prove  that  British 
commercial  pioneering  is  far  from  being  numbered  among 
the  lost  arts.  The  mere  launch  of  the  inquiry  has  sufficed 
to  spur  the  chemist  to  investigate  the  problem,  and  any 
success   achieved   in   the   laboratory   in   this   direction   will 


THE  SCRAP  FROM  THE  SEA  87 

represent  an  enormous  progressive  stride  owing  to  the 
magnitude  of  our  herring  fishery. 

At  the  moment  it  is  the  recovery  of  the  oil,  meal,  and 
fertilizer  which  constitutes  the  primary  objectives  of  the 
industry.  Of  the  three  possible  by-products  the  meal  is 
doubtless  the  most  remunerative.  To  a  certain  degree 
the  contemporary  concentration  of  effort  upon  the  con- 
version of  the  offal  into  meal  is  due  to  the  fact  that  this 
constituted  the  essence  of  German  endeavour  in  these  islands 
before  the  war.  This  meal  was  in  keen  demand  in  Germany, 
and  the  bulk  thereof  was  dispatched  to  that  country  and 
Japan.  The  interruption  of  this  supply  to  the  former,  as 
a  result  of  the  outbreak  of  hostilities,  hit  the  enemy  some- 
what severely.  Not  only  was  he  thus  deprived  of  the  crude 
meal  prepared  in  Britain,  but  he  was  also  denied  the  oppor- 
tunity to  turn  the  waste  accruing  from  the  consumption 
in  the  Fatherland  of  the  heavy  imports  of  British  herring 
which  were  also  summarily  cut  off.  Doubtless  Germany 
cherishes  hopes  that  her  industrious  sons,  who  specialized 
in  this  distinctive  craft,  will  be  permitted  to  return  to  the 
scene  of  their  former  labours  and  to  exploit  British  fish- 
scrap  once  again  to  the  advantage  of  the  German  nation 
upon  the  conclusion  of  peace.  May  the  wish  become  no 
more  than  father  to  the  thought.  We  have  not  failed  to 
profit  from  the  many  lessons  taught  by  the  war  :  we  have 
been  forced  to  recognize  the  many  virtues  of  fish-meal  and 
have  made,  and  still  are  making,  spirited  efforts  to  repair 
the  losses  in  this  line  of  trading  which,  from  our  indifference 
and  lack  of  imagination,  we  lost. 

To  galvanize  British  effort  the  fish-meal  and  fish-manure 
(guano)  manufacturers  have  joined  hands.  Propaganda  has 
been  waged  vigorously  by  the  association,  while  agricultural 
societies  and  colleges  have  willingly  co-operated  to  spread 
the  gospel  of  enlightenment.  Farmers  have  been  canvassed 
sedulously,  and  the  value  of  these  by-products  for  feeding 
stock  and  soil  have  been  brought  convincingly  before  them. 
As  a  poultry  food  fish-meal  is  declared  to  be  unsurpassable, 
and  this  circumstance  has  been  driven  well  home.  The 
result  of  this  onslaught  has  been  to  force  the  farmer,  an 
admittedly  difficult  individual  to  convince,  into  the  admission 
that  these  products  are  possessed  of  far-reaching  poten- 
tialities, the  result  being  that,  to-day,  an  increasing  demand 


88  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

for  fish-meal  and  guano  prevails,  which  has  exercised  the 
obvious  effect  of  stimulating  the  exploitation  of  fish-scrap 
to  a  very  pronounced  degree. 

During  the  war  circumstances  militated  against  the  ful- 
filment of  any  impressive  programme  of  development  along 
modern  lines.  Plant  and  machinery  could  not  be  procured 
owing  to  the  prior  claims  advanced  by  other  industries. 
Consequently  the  problem  became  resolved  rather  into  the 
modernization  and  adaptation  of  existing  plants,  many  of 
which  suffered  from  being  woefully  inefficient.  But  even 
in  this  direction  much  was  achieved  which  cannot  fail  to 
be  of  distinct  value,  since  it  has  served  to  illustrate  what 
can  be  done  in  this  field  to  financial  profit.  Now  that  trade 
is  returning  to  the  normal  we  may  safely  anticipate  a  striking 
advance  along  the  whole  industrial  line  in  the  installation 
of  comprehensive  plants  coinciding  with  the  very  latest 
expressions  of  scientific  thought,  and  which  will  not  fail 
to  conduce  to  the  winning  of  impressively  additional  wealth 
from  this  hitherto  sadly-neglected  material. 

So  far  as  the  white  fish  is  concerned  the  conversion  of 
the  offal  into  meal  represents  a  straightforward  operation. 
It  is  merely  dried  under  vacuum  along  the  lines  already 
described,  a  steam-jacketed  drier  or  concentrator  being 
used  for  the  purpose.  If  the  waste  be  stale  or  heavily 
impregnated  with  salt  it  cannot  be  used  as  food,  the  product 
in  this  instance  being  bagged  for  sale  as  a  fertilizer.  But 
the  manufacturer,  owing  to  the  enhanced  profit  to  be  derived 
from  the  sale  of  the  product  in  the  feeding-meal  form  natur- 
ally strives  to  secure  this  article,  and  so,  if  designed  for 
this  use,  the  meal,  after  issuance  from  the  drier,  is  passed 
through  a  disintegrator  and  is  then  graded  through  a  sifting 
reel. 

It  is  the  exploitation  of  the  herring  and  the  sprat,  both 
in  the  form  of  offal,  glut  catches,  and  condemned  consign- 
ments, which  presents  the  most  attractive  future  in  these 
islands.  When  it  is  remembered  that  the  annual  yield  of 
the  sea  to  the  fishermen  of  Britain  represents  a  round 
4,000,000,000  herrings,  it  will  be  conceded  that  here  must 
be  a  Klondyke  of  waste.  Unfortunately,  however,  the 
issue  is  not  so  straightforward  as  it  would  seem  to  be.  An 
enormous  quantity  of  the  catches  are  set  aside  for  salting 
and  curing  to  allow  of  export  to  foreign  markets.     In  the 


THE   SCRAP   FROM  THE   SEA  89 

past  Russia  and  Germany  were  our  largest  customers  for 
this  foodstuff,  their  combined  purchases  running  to  a  round 
800,000,000  lb.  and  exceeding  £4,000,000 — $20,000,000 — 
in  value.  When  the  fish  is  salted  the  treatment  of  the 
offal  presents  a  rather  teasing  problem.  Its  excessive  salt 
content  reacts  against  its  conversion  into  poultry-meal 
except  in  very  small  quantities  which  are  almost  too  insig- 
nificant to  demand  attention.  When  a  fish-meal  carries 
salt  in  excess  of  5  per  cent,  it  can  be  used  as  a  constituent 
of  blended  or  compounded  foods,  and  then  only  sparingly. 
Consequently  the  possible  consumption  in  this  field  can 
only  be  relatively  trifling. 

By  salting  the  herring  the  saline  content  is  increased 
to  20  or  even  25  per  cent.,  and  the  removal  of  the  added 
salt  offers  a  supreme  obstacle.  Fortunately  it  crops  up 
only  at  certain  seasons,  but,  at  these  periods,  the  quantities 
of  offal  and  scrap  to  be  treated  assume  imposing  dimensions. 
As  may  be  imagined,  from  what  has  been  related,  salt  is 
the  bugbear  to  the  meal  manufacturer  and  he  is  hard  put 
to  it  to  bring  the  figure  down  to  one  coinciding  with  trading 
requirements.  What  he  desires  is  a  simple,  inexpensive 
process  whereby  the  excessive  salt  may  be  eliminated  with- 
out impairing  the  other  virtues  of  the  material  in  any  way. 
Needless  to  say  the  discovery  of  such  a  preliminary  treatment, 
meeting  with  his  desires,  will  be  received  with  unfeigned 
delight. 

The  suggestion  has  been  advanced  that  the  extraneous, 
or  added,  salt  might  be  removed  by  subjecting  the  offal 
to  a  washing  process.  Undoubtedly,  in  this  way,  the  desired 
end  could  be  consummated  to  a  certain  degree,  but,  at  the 
same  time,  there  is  the  danger  that  the  water  would  not 
only  carry  away  the  salt  but  would  bear  with  it  an  appre- 
ciable proportion  of  the  valuable  nitrogenous  matter  which 
it  is  imperative  should  be  retained.  Unfortunately  the  salt 
is  not  completely  free  ;  it  permeates  the  fish  through  and 
through  and  is  held  by  the  tissues.  In  view  of  the  difficulty 
obtaining  the  manufacturer,  as  a  rule,  converts  the  heavily 
salted  offal  into  fertilizer,  but  the  enhanced  salt  content 
of  the  manure  is  regarded  with  certain  misgivings  even  by 
the  farmer. 

This  problem  assumed  its  maximum  intensity  during 
the  war.      Huge  quantities  of  barrelled  herrings,  destined 


90  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

for  export  to  the  countries  upon  the  other  side  of  the  North 
Sea,  were  held  up  by  the  authorities,  who  feared  that  they 
might  ultimately  find  their  way  into  enemy  countries.  As 
there  was  no  other  outlet  for  this  produce,  the  salted  herrings 
not  being  regarded  with  favour  here,  these  prohibited  exports 
were  ultimately  thrown  upon  the  hands  of  the  meal  manu- 
facturers. Such  an  instance  is  decidedly  abnormal,  but  as 
already  mentioned  the  issue  arises  to  a  lesser  degree  under 
conditions  of  ordinary  trading,  and,  consequently,  demands 
a  certain  amount  of  attention. 

The  engineering  firm  specializing  in  plants  for  the  ex- 
ploitation of  fish-scrap,  to  which  I  have  alluded,  is  attacking 
this  problem  in  its  extensive  well-equipped  laboratories. 
The  chemist  favours  the  theory  that  the  extraneous  salt 
is  capable  of  ready  removal.  He  also  realizes  that  the 
perfection  of  a  simple  and  cheap  process  to  this  end  will 
probably  accomplish  a  further  beneficial  purpose.  Traces 
of  blood  are  occasionally  encountered  in  the  offal,  and  their 
presence  tends  to  discolour  the  resultant  meal.  These 
might  possibly  be  eliminated  contemporaneously  with  the 
removal  of  the  added  salt. 

While  I  have  dealt  somewhat  at  length  with  the  artificial 
salt  problem,  as  it  were,  it  must  not  be  imagined  that  it  con- 
stitutes a  constant  or  inseparable  feature  of  the  fish-waste 
by-product  recovery  industry  :  far  from  it.  Herring  offal, 
while  extremely  varied,  falls  into  certain  distinctive  classes. 
There  is  the  scrap,  or  waste,  as  well  as  condemned  consign- 
ments and  surplus  incidental  to  the  fresh  fish  trade,  which 
during  the  recurring  periods  undoubtedly  touches  a  very 
high  figure.  Then  there  is  the  kippering  and  curer  offal, 
the  yield  of  which  is  much  more  formidable  and  easily 
recoverable  from  accumulations  at  central  plants  where 
such  work  is  carried  out  upon  a  large  scale.  The  kippering 
refuse,  of  course,  represents  that  incurred  in  the  process 
of  kippering  the  herring  and,  comprising  for  the  most  part 
the  gut  of  the  fish,  presents  a  material  having  little  body  or 
substance. 

This  waste  is  difficult  to  treat  except  along  the  most 
modern  lines.  For  this  reason,  in  pre-war  days  it  was 
exploited  only  to  a  limited  degree.  Yet  its  accumulation 
was  enormous.  At  some  plants  the  piles  of  such  refuse, 
which   were   to   be  seen,   contained   several   hundred   tons. 


THE  SCRAP  FROM  THE  SEA  91 

It  failed  to  arouse  earnest  attention  until  the  famine  in  oil 
burst  upon  us  during  hostilities.  Then  these  dumps  created 
interest  because  it  was  realized  that  such  residue  is  rich 
in  oil,  enormous  quantities  of  which  were  lying  dormant. 
Forthwith  plants  were  erected  and  equipped  with  the  very 
latest  types  of  machinery,  which  augurs  well  for  the  con- 
tinuation of  this  manifestation  of  industrial  enterprise  in 
the  future,  owing  to  the  great  possibilities  attending  such 
reclamation. 

Curer  offal  presents  the  heads  and  other  waste  portions 
as  well  as  a  material  quantity  of  broken  fish.  This  refuse 
has  far  more  body,  and  so  can  be  more  readily  treated  to 
allow  the  valuable  by-products  to  be  recovered. 

While  we  undoubtedly  lagged  behind  our  competitors 
in  turning  fish-scrap  to  commercial  account  it  must  not  be 
imagined  that  we  completely  ignored  this  potential  source 
of  wealth.  Nevertheless,  for  the  most  part,  we  were  content 
to  conduct  operations  along  obsolete,  inefficient  lines,  obtain- 
ing a  return  far  below  what  might  have  been  recorded. 
Had  these  plants  been  of  modern  design  and  equipment  fish- 
waste  reclamation  would  have  advanced  by  leaps  and  bounds 
during  the  war  period.  As  new  machinery  could  not  be 
obtained  the  main  task  was  to  adapt  the  existing  plant  to 
satisfy  the  demands  of  the  authorities,  which  proved  a  task 
of  distinct  magnitude  in  itself,  because  the  majority  of 
the  installations  in  operation  possessed  no  striking  feature 
other  than  that  of  being  extremely  wasteful  from  every 
point  of  view,  offering,  in  fact,  the  most  convincing 
illustrations  of   How  not  to  do  it  ! 

In  some  works  the  practice  was  to  cook  the  offal  in 
steam-jacketed  cookers.  Now,  when  kippering  offal,  for 
instance,  is  being  treated,  the  material,  owing  to  lack  of 
body,  tends  to  coagulate  at  a  certain  stage  in  the  process,  a 
large  volume  of  oil  being  liberated.  This  oil  was  skimmed 
and  the  residue,  resembling  a  stiff  mud,  was  removed  to  be 
wrapped  in  cloths  for  submission  to  extreme  pressure  in 
hydraulic  presses.  This  action  served  to  express  a  certain 
proportion  of  the  oil  remaining  in  the  sludge.  The  com- 
pressed cakes  were  then  transferred  to  a  steam-jacketed 
drier  to  be  reduced  to  meal. 

This  process,  which  has  not  yet  been  completely  super- 
seded, suffers  from  being  involved  and  prolonged,  although 


92  MILLIONS   FROM   WASTE 

these  do  not  constitute  the  most  adverse  features.  The 
greatest  objections  to  it  are  the  retention  of  an  appreciable 
quantity  of  oil  in  the  residue,  even  after  subjection  to  pressure, 
which  accordingly  becomes  associated  with  the  meal.  The 
last-named  being  sold  for  fertilizing  purposes,  the  presence 
of  the  oil  is  objectionable,  while  the  product  also  suffers 
from  being  low  in  ammonia.  Furthermore,  while  the  sludge 
is  being  pressed  a  pronounced  volume  of  watery  liquid  is 
driven  out  to  be  lost  down  the  drains.  Seeing  that  this  liquid 
carries  valuable  manurial  constituents  its  loss  is  greatly  to 
be  deplored,  and  materially  lowers  the  fertilizing — and 
financial — value  of  the  meal. 

A  variation  of  the  foregoing  process  is  made  in  other 
works,  but  it  only  tends  towards  greater  inefficiency  and 
heavier  losses.  In  this  case  only  the  oil  resulting  from 
treatment  of  the  material  in  the  hydraulic  press  is  recovered  ! 
A  third  system  involves  the  passage  of  the  pressed  cakes 
through  a  continuous  direct  fire-heated  drier.  This  method 
is  particularly  objectionable,  not  only  from  the  offensive 
odours  which  are  thrown  off,  but  because  the  ammonia 
content  of  the  waste  undergoes  serious  depreciation,  owing 
to  the  high  temperature  employed.  In  certain  instances 
the  herring  offal  is  even  charged  into  the  apparatus  without 
any  attempt  having  been  made  to  separate  the  oil  !  Such 
a  system,  as  will  readily  be  recognized,  has  nothing  whatever 
to  recommend  it. 

It  is  the  observance  of  such  indifferent  and  unscientific 
methods  as  the  foregoing  which  has  been  responsible  for 
the  commercial  possibilities  of  fish-scrap  to  be  belittled. 
The  oil  is  undoubtedly  ignored  intentionally  because  fish 
oils  are  generally  held  to  be  worthy  of  inclusion  only  among 
the  lowest  grades  of  industrial  oils.  Nevertheless,  were  a 
chemist  to  be  attached  to  such  wasteful  plants  much  needed 
reforms  could  be  promptly  introduced,  although  it  is  highly 
probable  that  the  plants  would  be  scrapped  instantly  at 
his  instigation  because  of  their  lamentable  inefficiency. 

But  we  need  labour  no  longer  in  ignorance.  Modern 
science,  as  represented  by  chemistry  and  engineering,  is 
able  to  offer  an  equipment  capable  of  extracting  the  whole 
of  the  oil  content  down  to  i  per  cent.  In  other  words, 
99  per  cent,  of  the  oil  contained  in  the  raw  offal  and 
scrap  can  be  recovered  both  cheaply  and  easily.     The  loss 


THE   SCRAP  FROM   THE   SEA  93 

of  such  a  minute  fraction  as  i  per  cent,  undoubtedly 
represents   a  remarkable   chemico-mechanical  achievement. 

The  new  process  completely  coincides  with  the  dictates 
of  contemporary  science.  The  fundamental  features  are 
cooking  the  refuse  under  vacuum  and  the  ultimate  extraction 
of  the  oil  by  the  aid  of  a  suitable  solvent  such  as  benzine 
or  other  equally  volatile  spirit,  or  the  benzine  extraction 
system  may  be  used  from  the  very  beginning,  in  a  single 
and  complete  process.  I  have  described  this  highly  in- 
genious system  in  a  previous  chapter  together  with  the 
system  of  operation  followed.  Obviously  while  the  highest 
efficiency  can  only  be  derived  from  the  installation  of  the 
complete  plant,  the  processes  being  interrelated,  the  designer 
found  it  possible  to  modernize  some  of  the  old-fashioned 
and  wasteful  equipments  to  a  very  striking  degree  by  the 
introduction  of  certain  features  to  meet  the  exigencies  of 
the  moment. 

A  very  convincing  illustration  of  what  can  be  achieved 
in  this  connection  may  be  related.  A  firm  specializing  in 
the  exploitation  of  herring  offal  desired  to  extend  its  plant, 
but  was  baulked  in  its  intentions  owing  to  the  various 
restrictions  which  were  in  force.  Accordingly  it  was  com- 
pelled to  consider  the  situation  of  how  to  derive  more  from 
the  existing  facilities  without  adding  to  them,  at  least  only 
to  an  insignificant  degree.  At  first  sight  this  may  seem  to 
have  presented  a  somewhat  intricate,  if  not  actually  im- 
possible, undertaking.     Yet  it  was  effected. 

The  modified  arrangement  introduced  is  decidedly  inter- 
esting. The  offal  is  cooked  in  the  steam -jacketed  cooker, 
as  much  as  possible  of  the  oil  being  skimmed  from  the 
mixture  at  the  critical  stage  of  coagulation.  The  sediment, 
or  mud-like  residue,  is  then  transferred  to  an  extractor 
where  the  remaining  oil  is  recovered.  This  converts  the 
residue  into  a  still  stiffer  substance  to  be  finished  off  in 
the  ordinary  steam-jacketed  drier,  instead  of  being  com- 
pletely dried  in  the  extractor  as  originally  designed. 

This  solution  has  proved  to  be  exceedingly  simple  and 
eminently  efficient.  Although  considerable  handling  is  in- 
volved the  extracting  capacity  of  the  plant  has  been  nearly 
doubled.     The  advantages  to  be  recorded  are  : — 

(i)  Ability  to  handle   very  much  larger  charges  of 
waste  when  not  reducing  the  material  to  a  dry  meal ; 


94  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

(2)  Reduction  of  the  raw  material  to  the  extent  of 
the  oil  removed  from  the  cookers  ; 

(3)  Reduction   of  the  time  required  for  the  oil  ex- 
traction by  approximately  50  per  cent. 

Consequently,  although  the  adapted,  or  modified,  process 
entails  the  employment  of  extra  labour,  a  result  entirely 
due  in  this  instance  to  the  disposition  of  the  plant  in  the 
works,  the  firm  in  question  is  able  to  obtain  the  value  of  the 
oil  which  would  otherwise  be  lost,  and  which  more  than 
offsets  the  cost  of  the  extra  labour  involved. 

As  a  result  of  this  development  a  review  of  the  whole 
problem  associated  with  the  recovery  of  the  by-products 
from  fish-scrap  was  made.  Cooking  plant  is  not  so  expensive 
as  extraction  equipment.  The  question  arose  as  to  whether, 
or  not,  it  would  be  possible,  by  the  introduction  of  suitable 
automatic  handling  and  other  labour-saving  devices,  to 
obtain  highly  satisfactory  results  and  efficiency  from  a 
combined  plant.  If  this  could  be  done  then  it  would  be 
comparatively  easy  and  inexpensive  to  bring  many  of  the 
existing  recovery  plants  up  to  date  to  the  advantage  of  the 
firms  concerned.  But  the  factor  of  capital  outlay  demands 
careful  consideration,  more  especially  in  all  matters  per- 
taining to  the  utilization  of  waste  products,  because  costs 
must  be  forced  down  to  the  irreducible  minimum  to  show 
the  necessary  return  to  render  them  attractive.  The  result 
of  close  investigation  of  the  issue  led  to  the  ultimate  con- 
clusion that  the  cost  involved  in  connection  with  the 
cookers,  extraction  plant,  and  driers,  in  all  probability, 
would  be  heavier  than  that  incidental  to  the  laying  down 
of  a  straightforward  extraction  plant,  pure  and  simple,  to 
deal  with  the  raw  material  and  to  turn  it  out  as  a  dry 
product  in  one  operation.  One  admitted  advantage  accrues 
from  subjecting  the  material  to  preliminary  cooking  in 
steam-jacketed  cookers.  The  oil  thus  obtained  is  some- 
what better  in  quality  than  that  derived  by  recourse  to 
the  solvent. 

The  modified  or  combined  process  above  described 
enables  one  distinct  end  to  be  achieved.  The  objectionable 
and  wasteful,  as  well  as  expensive  pressing  plant  can  be 
dispensed  with.  It  also  enables  the  ammonia  content  of 
the  finished  meal  to  be  improved  very  noticeably,  as  the 


THE   SCRAP  FROM   THE   SEA  95 

following  analyses  of  typical  meals  produced  by  the  respective 
processes    prove   somewhat    conclusively. 


Phosphates. 

Ammonia. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

Pressing  process 

6-5 

7'5 

Combined  process 

9'5 

io-5 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen  that  the  enhanced  yield 
of  phosphates  and  ammonia  fully  justifies  the  additional 
expenditure  incurred  in  regard  to  the  plant  and  labour  in 
connection  with  the  extraction  process,  quite  apart  from 
the  main  duty  of  the  plant.  This  is  to  extract  all  the  oil, 
multiplying  the  usual  yield  many  times  over.  Moreover, 
the  quality  of  the  oil-free  meal  obviously  is  superior. 

With  herring  offal  the  extraction  process  by  benzine 
ensures  nothing  being  removed  except  the  moisture  and 
the  oil.  None  of  the  liquor  with  its  valuable  ammonia  is 
lost.  Consequently  the  whole  of  the  nitrogenous  matter  is 
combined  with  the  resultant  fertilizing  meal. 

To  indicate  the  advantage  of  the  benzine  extraction 
process  over  the  old-fashioned  method  of  cooking,  pressing, 
and  subsequently  drying  the  pressed  cakes  the  accompanying 
analyses  may  prove  informative.  They  refer  to  herring- 
mixed  meal  produced  from  kippering  offal  and  damaged 
herring  respectively. 

Benzine  Extraction  Process. 


Ammonia 

Per  cent. 

..      ii -79 

Tribasic  phosphate  of  lime 

Oil 

9-66 

Qld  Process. 

Ammonia 

Per  cent. 

7'5 

Tribasic  phosphate  of  lime 

Oil 

..         65 
155 

Both  essential  fertilizing  constituents  are  lower  by  the 
second  than  by  the  first  process.  This  is  not  surprising  in 
view  of  the  fact  that  the  subjection  of  the  sludge  to  pressure 
drives  off  the  watery  liquor  which  is  allowed  to  escape  into 
the  drains,  notwithstanding  that  it  carries  a  pronounced 
proportion  of  the  ammonia  and  phosphate.     Then  it  will 


96  MILLIONS  FROM  WASTE 

be  seen  that  the  benzine  process  yields  a  manure  carrying 
a  less  proportion  of  the  oil  which  the  farmer  regards  with 
misgiving,  because  the  oil  has  been  recovered  for  sale  as 
such.  In  other  words  it  will  be  seen  that,  under  the  old 
process,  14'  4  per  cent,  of  oil  is  allowed  to  pass  to  the  land 
where  it  is  not  required,  instead  of  to  industry  where  it  is 
in  keen  request.  At  the  prices  which  prevailed  during  the 
war  this  represented  a  wastage  of  £y — $35 — per  ton  of 
fertilizer. 

Under  the  extraction  or  solvent  process  the  meal  is 
turned  out  in  a  perfectly  dry  condition,  either  for  use  as 
a  poultry  food  or  fertilizer,  the  recovery  of  the  oil  and 
drjdng  being  completed  in  the  one  operation.  The  method 
is  not  only  the  acme  of  simplicity  but  it  assures  the  maximum 
yield  of  oil,  only  1  per  cent,  being  lost.  It  is  also  rapid, 
it  being  possible  to  treat  a  charge  of  8  tons  of  offal  in  10 
to  12  hours  in  one  unit. 

White  fish  and  general  offal  do  not  contain  sufficient 
oil  to  warrant  the  expense  of  solvent  extraction.  If  it 
should  be  desired  to  secure  99  per  cent,  of  the  slight  pro- 
portion the  offal  carries  then  submission  to  the  benzine 
process  is  imperative,  for  the  simple  reason  that  it  cannot 
possibly  be  recovered  in  any  other  way.  The  modern 
system  of  drying  such  offal  is  by  steam  heat  under  vacuum 
or  reduced  pressure. 

This  process,  to  which  I  have  also  devoted  adequate 
attention  previously,  not  only  enables  a  product  of  high 
quality  to  be  obtained,  enabling  it  to  command  an  enhanced 
price  in  the  market,  but  it  also  conduces  towards  the 
retention  of  the  nitrogenous  contents  of  the  meal.  From 
the  fertilizing  point  of  view  this  is  the  main  end  to  be 
achieved.  Colour  of  the  meal  is  another  factor  which 
demands  recognition.  It  plays  a  far  more  prominent 
part  in  the  commercial  value  of  the  product  than  might 
possibly  be  conceived.  The  American  drying  system, 
operating  along  direct  fire-heated  lines,  while  efficient  so 
far  as  it  goes,  namely,  the  elimination  of  the  moisture, 
yields  a  darker  coloured  meal,  owing  to  the  high  tempera- 
ture which  has  to  be  used,  while,  of  course,  the  nitrogen 
content  is  lowered  by  such  practice. 

The  vacuum  system  has  also  proved  highly  efficient 
for   the   production   of   cod-liver   oil.     The   temperature   of 


THE   SCRAP  FROM  THE   SEA  97 

rendering  being  low  gives  an  oil  of  superior  colour  and  odour, 
two  factors  of  vital  importance  when  the  oil  is  being  extracted 
for  medicinal  purposes.  This  is  a  somewhat  delicate  product 
to  manufacture,  especially  when  the  livers  are  in  a  state 
of  partial  decomposition,  because  in  this  instance  colour 
and  sweet  taste  are  particularly  vital  and  difficult  to  assure. 

I  have  referred  to  the  circumstance  that  fish  oils  com- 
mercially rule  low  in  the  scale  of  industrial  oils.  But  even 
fish  oils  possess  one  feature  common  to  the  highest  grades 
of  oils.  They  carry  a  certain  proportion  of  glycerine. 
During  the  war  the  oil  extracted  from  fish-scrap  and  offal 
was  subjected  to  further  treatment  to  swell  our  domestic 
supplies  of  this  indispensable  commodity.  Even  under 
normal  conditions  the  reclamation  of  oil  from  fish  waste 
to  secure  this  glycerine  offers  further  inducement  to  this 
phase  of  industry,  and  is  also  capable  of  considerable 
development. 

Fish  oils  are  also  destined  to  play  a  more  prominent 
part  upon  the  table  than  has  been  the  case  heretofore. 
Their  inherent  fluidity  and  refusal  to  solidify,  except  at 
low  temperatures,  have  hitherto  reacted  against  their  use 
in  this  direction.  But  the  increasing  demand  for  margarine 
as  a  substitute  for  butter,  and  the  discovery  of  the  hydro- 
genating  process  for  eliminating  the  two  outstanding  defects, 
have  invested  the  future  for  fish  oils  with  additional  signi- 
ficance, more  especially  as  by  the  hardening  process,  as  it 
is  called,  the  pungent  taste  and  aroma  so  distinctively  of 
the  sea  and  its  inhabitants  are  removed.  By  virtue  of  this 
discovery  fish  oils  are  entering  more  and  more  extensively 
into  the  manufacture  of  margarine.  The  circumstance  that 
they  yield  a  product  so  closely  allied  to  the  genuine  article 
from  the  dairy  as  to  be  difficult  of  detection,  except  by 
elaborate  investigation  and  specialized  methods,  has  served 
to  accentuate  this  tendency. 

We  must  derive  far-reaching  benefits  from  the  utilization 
of  our  fish  waste  of  every  description — not  only  the  offal 
arising  from  the  preparation  of  the  foodstuff  for  the  table 
either  in  a  fresh,  kippered,  cured,  or  canned  condition,  but 
the  inedible  contributions  from  the  trawls.  Those  members 
of  the  sea's  vast  and  varied  population,  such  as  the  whale, 
which  are  trapped  for  certain  highly-prized  portions  of  their 
bodies,   must  be  fully  exploited.     For  decades  the  whale 


98  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

fishery  has  been  conducted  along  the  most  wickedly  waste- 
ful lines  for  which  we  are  paying  to-day.  The  Scandinavian 
whalers  have  been  among  the  worst  offenders  in  this  respect, 
but  they  are  now  being  compelled  to  turn  from  the  folly 
of  their  ways  and  are  endeavouring  to  utilize  the  whole 
of  the  carcases  of  their  prizes. 

So  far  as  the  average  member  of  the  community  in  these 
islands  is  concerned  it  is  a  moot  point  whether  he,  or  she, 
has  any  tangible  idea  of  the  magnitude  of  the  British  sea- 
fishing  industry.  From  the  abundance  and  cheapness  of 
the  food  a  vague  notion  obtains  that  it  must  certainly  be 
somewhat  impressive.  To  obtain  a  graphic  idea  of  its 
enormous  proportions  we  must  venture  beyond  the  limits 
of  domestic  consumption  and  see  how  we  help  to  feed  the 
foreigner.  Under  normal  conditions  we  ship  approximately 
1,250,000,000  lb.  of  fish  every  year,  representing  in  value 
a  round  £7,750,000 — $38,750,000.  Of  this  huge  total  the 
humble  herring  represents  nearly  1,120,000,000  lb.,  valued 
at  approximately  £6,000,000 — $30,000,000.  Of  the  total 
herring  catch  about  one  thousand  million — 1,000,000,000 — 
lb.  are  subjected  to  curing  or  salting  for  the  foreign  markets, 
the  value  of  those  exports  being  £5,350,000 — $26,750,000 — 
so  that  the  herring  may  truly  be  said  to  form  the  backbone 
of  the  British  sea-fisheries.  In  these  circumstances,  and 
bearing  in  mind  the  huge  quantities  handled,  the  item  of 
waste  must  necessarily  loom  heavy.  It  cannot  be  avoided. 
Therefore  it  behoves  us  to  turn  our  harvest  from  the  sea 
to  the  utmost  advantage  and  to  eliminate  the  item  "  loss  " 
from  our  operations. 

As  the  by-products  from  fish-waste  become  appreciated 
we  may  even  proceed  to  the  lengths  pursued  along  the 
northern  Atlantic  seaboard  of  the  United  States.  There 
the  harvest  of  the  menhaden,  a  fish  totally  unfit  for  human 
consumption,  is  carried  out  expressly  for  the  oil  obtainable 
therefrom.  It  has  become  a  flourishing  trade — one  which 
is  steadily  expanding — special  vessels  being  engaged  in 
the  fishery.  While  it  is  questionable  if  much  fish  of  a  com- 
parative character  and  totally  unsuited  to  the  table  is  to 
be  caught  in  the  waters  around  our  coasts,  Farther  Britain 
can  point  to  a  different  state  of  things.  Our  Dominions 
should  find  it  profitable  to  emulate  the  American  example 
and  exploit  adjacent  waters  essentially  for  inedible  fish  to 


THE   SCRAP  FROM    THE  SEA  99 

extract  the  oil  and  to  convert  the  residue  either  into 
fertilizer  or  poultry  food.  There  is  a  lucrative  and  develop- 
ing market  for  all  three  commodities. 

But  the  problem  of  to-day,  in  so  far  as  it  particularly 
affects  Great  Britain,  is  to  solve  the  issue  incidental  to  the 
glut  catches,  so  as  to  prevent  the  wasteful  distribution  of 
the  raw  fish  over  the  land  as  the  easiest  way  out  of  a  per- 
plexing dilemma.  If  we  can  divert  such  unwanted  hauls 
from  the  sea  to  reclamation  factories,  confident  in  the  know- 
ledge that  there  they  will  be  worked  up  to  their  utmost 
in  the  interests  of  commerce,  we  shall  be  able  to  record  an 
industrial  and  economic  achievement  of  incalculable  con- 
sequence to  ourselves.  To  dump  newly-caught  fish  upon 
the  land  merely  because  it  cannot  be  absorbed  by  the  com- 
munity as  a  foodstuff  constitutes  one  of  the  most  deplorably 
wasteful,  if  not  actually  criminally  extravagant,  charges 
ever  levelled  against  contemporary  civilization. 


CHAPTER   VII 

WINNING  WEALTH  FROM  SLAUGHTER-HOUSE 
OFFAL,  CONDEMNED  MEAT  BONES,  AND 
BLOOD 

Undoubtedly  one  of  the  wonders  of  civilization  is  the 
ability  to  preserve  and  transport  such  a  readily  perishable 
foodstuff  as  meat  in  a  chilled  and  frozen  condition  for  an 
indefinite  period  of  time.  By  this  means  cattle  roaming 
the  extensive  ranches  of  North  and  South  America,  Australia 
and  New  Zealand,  are  rendered  available  in  a  fresh  form  for 
presentation  upon  the  tables  of  Britain  to  supplement  the 
severely  limited  domestic  supplies.  During  recent  years 
the  growth  of  this  traffic  has  been  remarkable,  and  it  will 
not  be  long  before  we  touch  the  million-tons-a-year  mark 
for  imported  beef,  mutton,  pork,  exclusive  of  ham  and  bacon. 
Yet  the  development  of  this  trade  has  reacted  directly 
against  our  own  interests.  The  dispatch  of  the  carcases 
to  these  islands  in  the  dressed  condition  has  deprived,  and 
still  is  depriving  us,  of  much  valuable  raw  material  to  which 
we  should  have  access  were  we  to  raise  sufficient  meat  to 
satisfy  our  own  needs.  This  is  the  exploitation  of  the  offal 
or  inedible  portions  of  the  beast,  the  products  obtained 
from  which  are  not  only  of  marked  intrinsic  value,  but 
enter  into  so  many  other  and  varied  industries.  From 
this  statement  it  must  not  be  imagined  that  we  are  entirely 
prevented  from  establishing  a  meat-waste  industry,  since 
our  domestic  killing  trade  is  of  distinct  significance  and  is 
supplemented  to  a  certain  degree  by  the  "  home-killed  " 
business.  The  latter,  as  is  well  known,  represents  the 
shipment  of  cattle  to  this  country  in  the  live  condition  to 
be  slaughtered  upon  landing. 

In   these  circumstances  it   would   be  perfectly   feasible 

100 


OFFAL  101 

for  us  to  establish  the  meat  residue  exploitation  industry 
upon  a  comprehensive  scale  but  for  the  fact  that  existing 
conditions  are  decisively  adverse,  although  we  could  scarcely 
aspire  to  attain  the  magnitude  and  operations  of  the  huge 
meat-packing  plants  of  Chicago.  It  is  extremely  doubtful 
if  we  really  appreciate  the  possibilities  of  this  business,  and, 
because  of  our  ignorance,  we,  as  a  nation,  are  the  losers.  We 
have  permitted  the  local  or  territorial  slaughter  of  cattle 
to  be  carried  to  an  extreme  length.  The  municipal  abattoir 
constitutes  the  feature  of  the  slaughtering  trade  of  these 
islands,  and  although  this  practice  was  introduced  to  over- 
come the  shortcomings  of  the  private  slaughter-house,  which 
were  many,  and  to  ensure  killing  and  dressing  animals  under 
the  most  hygienic  and  scientific  conditions,  yet  it  is  a  matter 
for  serious  consideration  as  to  whether  the  municipal  practice 
should  not  be  superseded  by  a  centralized  system,  acting 
under  State  or  private  control,  the  latter  for  preference, 
so  as  to  give  full  rein  to  the  display  of  initiative. 

There  is  no  logical  reason  why  the  slaughter  of  domestic 
cattle  should  not  be  conducted  at  a  central  point.  Such 
a  plant  conducted  along  the  lines  practised  at  Chicago  would 
be  of  far-reaching  benefit  to  the  community.  Supervision 
would  be  more  effective,  simpler  and  less  expensive,  inasmuch 
as  it  would  be  possible  to  dispense  with  the  multiplicity  of 
officials  now  obtaining — another  form  of  waste.  It  would 
also  enable  the  residues  from  the  trade  to  be  turned  to 
utilitarian  advantage  along  the  most  economic  and  profit- 
able lines,  owing  to  their  very  bulk.  A  visit  to  the  Chicago 
stockyards  brings  home  very  forcibly  the  magnitude  of  this 
trade  and  the  wealth  to  be  won  from  the  residues  which 
accrue.  It  has  been  declared,  and  with  considerable  truth, 
that  at  the  American  stockyards  the  development  of  the 
by-products  is  every  whit  as  extensive  and  as  important 
as  the  preparation  of  the  ostensible  staple  product.  It  is 
actually  more  profitable,  and  brings  in  as  great  if  not  greater 
revenue. 

The  arguments  which  would  be  levelled  against  the 
establishment  of  a  central  meat-packing  plant  in  this  country 
are  many  and  obvious.  In  the  first  place  full  voice  would 
be  given  to  the  apparent  futility  of  sending  a  live  animal 
from  20  to  600  or  700  miles  merely  to  be  killed,  and  to  return 
the  dressed  carcase  to  be  sold.    Superficially  it  does  appear 


102  MILLIONS  FROM  WASTE 

to  be  a  senseless  employment  of  transport  and  to  incur 
needless  expense.  Yet  such  a  practice  is  followed  upon 
the  North  American  continent.  Animals  are  shipped  alive 
over  hundreds  of  miles  to  be  killed  and  returned  to  the  point 
where  they  were  bought,  in  the  form  of  dressed  meat  ready 
for  consumption.  But  the  argument  is  fatuous.  Centralized 
slaughtering  facilities  secure  equitable  distribution,  as  well 
as  prompt  movement,  since  the  trade  is  sufficiently  heavy 
to  demand  the  inauguration  of  a  special  handling  and 
transportation  system.  Then  again  such  a  practice  allows 
bulk  shipment  combined  with  long  haulage,  two  essential 
conditions  to  economic  transportation.  If  the  method  were 
practised  in  these  islands,  not  only  would  it  be  possible  to 
take  full  advantage  of  the  latest  manifestations  of  science  in 
so  far  as  it  affected  the  industry,  but  it  would  enable  the 
residues  forthcoming  in  enormous  quantities  to  be  treated 
upon  the  spot  in  the  reclamation  plant  forming  an  integral 
part  of  the  stockyard  equipment.  The  revenue  derived  from 
the  disposal  of  the  by-products  rendered  available  in  a  com- 
mercial form  would  not  only  more  than  offset  the  charges 
incurred  concerning  transportation,  but  would  tend  towards 
the  primary  product — the  meat — being  sold  at  a  lower  figure 
to  the  public. 

Under  the  present  system  of  local  killing  much  of  the 
offal  escapes  reclamatory  treatment  for  the  simple  reason 
that  the  quantity  forthcoming  is  so  limited  as  not  to  be 
deemed  worthy  of  exploitation,  or  else  is  subjected  to  obso- 
lete or  inefficient  by-product  recovery  methods.  In  many 
instances  it  is  sold  to  a  contractor  who  endeavours  to  conduct 
bulk  treatment  upon  a  reduced  scale,  paying  a  relatively 
low  price  for  the  refuse  and  one  quite  disproportionate  to 
its  true  value.  In  some  instances  the  contractor  does  not 
attempt  to  carry  out  by-product  recovery,  but  merely  acts 
as  a  middleman,  dispatching  the  various  residues  to  the 
quarters  where  he  knows  they  will  be  taken  in  hand  to  be 
worked  up. 

During  the  past  few  years  the  science  of  winning  wealth 
from  slaughter-house  offal  of  every  description  has  made 
enormous  strides,  effort  having  been  concentrated  upon 
the  recovery  of  the  very  utmost  yield  of  by-products  for  the 
simple  reason  that  the  demand  therefor  is  exceedingly  keen, 
while  prices  are  necessarily  attractive,     This  applies  particu- 


OFFAL  103 

larly  to  the  fats,  the  value  of  which  ranges  up  to  as  much 
as  £50  per  ton,  according  to  grade,  although  other  commodities 
simultaneously  secured,  such  as  meal  for  cattle-feeding  and 
fertilizers,  are  able  to  command  equally  impressive  prices. 
A  graphic  idea  of  the  degree  to  which  this  science  has  been 
advanced  is  obvious  from  the  dimensions,  comprehensiveness 
and  modernity  of  the  by-product  installations  which  have 
been  laid  down  as  adjuncts  to  the  mammoth  cattle-killing 
plants  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  the  majority  of  which, 
as  I  have  pointed  out  in  a  previous  chapter,  are  of  British 
origin,  design  and  construction,  and  many  of  which  have 
been,  and  still  are  being,  supplied  from  this  country.  Surely 
it  is  somewhat  anomalous  that  other  countries  should  come 
to  us  for  the  latest  expressions  of  ingenuity  and  invention 
in  this  province  when  we  are  unable  to  point  to  a  single 
pretentious  plant  in  this  country  !  At  the  same  time  it  is 
distinctly  gratifying  to  learn  that  if  Britain  cannot  display 
sufficient  imagination  or  commercial  acumen  to  use  plants 
of  this  character,  she  certainly  can  build  them,  and  is  not 
only  able  to  keep  well  astride  of  the  times,  but  is  fertile  in 
thought  concerning  a  highly  specialized  ramification  of 
industry. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  it  may  come  somewhat  of  a  surprise 
to  learn  that  British  thought  is  far  in  advance  of  American 
practise,  as  manifested  by  the  stockyards  at  Chicago  in 
regard  to  the  utilization  of  appliances  and  process  for  the 
treatment  of  meat  residues.  The  interests  at  the  mammoth 
plant  were  approached  with  the  latest  British  development 
in  this  line — the  solvent  extraction  process  described  in  a 
previous  chapter — it  being  recognized  that  its  introduction 
to  the  American  stockyards  would  apply  the  seal  of  highest 
approval  to  the  invention  and  represent  a  great  achievement 
for  the  British  interests  which  had  evolved  and  perfected 
it.  It  possessed  every  virtue  likely  to  make  appeal,  more 
particularly  the  means  of  enabling  the  American  packers 
to  add  to  their  already  huge  profits.  The  process  was 
investigated,  and  its  superiority  over  the  methods  in  vogue 
was  frankly  conceded.  But  the  Chicago  industry  firmly 
declined  to  embrace  the  invention,  not  from  feelings  of 
hostility,  but  because  the  interests  concerned  had  developed 
their  own  plant  along  lines,  and  to  a  degree  which  would 
not  readily  permit  a  revolution.     To  have  introduced  the 


104  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

new  idea  would  have  been  to  disorganize  the  whole  business 
of  by-product  reclamation  and  would  have  demanded  the 
revision  of  methods,  knowledge,  practice,  and  routine. 
Questions  of  cost  did  not  enter  into  the  issue  at  all. 
The  packers  merely  declined  to  disturb  the  system  they 
had  standardized  and  had  carried  to  such  a  level  of 
perfection. 

But  the  packers  were  not  wholly  opposed  to  progress. 
Although  not  willing  to  introduce  the  system  into  their 
plants,  they  were  quite  ready  to  turn  over  their  wastes,  after 
they  had  extracted  as  much  as  they  could  of  material  value 
therefrom  under  their  system,  to  the  British  interests.  The 
inventors  accepted  the  proposal,  and  to-day  one  may  witness 
the  strange  and  anomalous  spectacle  of  British  interests 
taking  over  the  residues  from  residues  from  the  packing  plants 
for  further  treatment,  and  conducting  the  unusual  method 
of  trading  to  their  financial  profit.  It  was  confidence  in 
the  superiority  of  the  new  idea  which  brought  such  signal 
success.  Yet  this  exploitation  of  wastes  from  wastes  is 
not  peculiar  to  Chicago.  It  is  even  being  practised  to  a 
limited  degree  in  these  islands,  which  suffices  to  prove  that 
certain  quarters  are  fully  cognizant  of  the  wealth  awaiting 
to  be  won  from  waste,  and  that  it  pays  to  conduct  the  process 
to  the  recovery  of  the  uttermost  retrievable  ounce  even 
from  such  material. 

Certain  of  our  municipalities,  fully  alive  to  the  value  of 
the  waste  incidental  to  the  operations  of  their  abattoirs, 
are  sparing  no  effort  to  utilize  such  material  to  the  full. 
However,  in  many  instances,  their  enterprise  is  thwarted 
by  the  circumstance  that  the  butchers  making  avail  of  the 
Corporation  facilities  extended,  possess  certain  vested  interests 
which  must  be  honoured.  Accordingly  it  is  not  possible 
to  conduct  reclamation  to  such  limits  as  would  be  attainable 
were  methods  comparable  with  those  prevailing  at  the 
Chicago  stockyards  in  operation.  To  be  able  to  extract 
the  utmost  from  the  refuse  it  is  imperative  that  the  authori- 
ties should  be  given  unrestricted  control  of  the  animal, 
preferably  absolute  ownership.  This  is  the  reason  why  the 
big  private  packing  plants  are  able  to  achieve  such  eminent 
success.  They  purchase  the  live  animals,  and  consequently 
are  free  to  exploit  them  in  accordance  with  the  principles 
they  have  elaborated.     Nevertheless,  despite  the  difficulties 


OFFAL  105 

obtaining,  much  good  work  is  being  accomplished  in  British 
circles  concerning  abattoir  waste  exploitation. 

The  case  of  Edinburgh  may  be  cited  as  an  illustration. 
I  purposely  select  the  Scottish  city  for  the  reason  that — so 
far  as  municipalities  are  concerned — it  is  possessed  of  one  of 
the  most  up-to-date  installations  in  the  country,  is  enter- 
prising, and  serves  to  bring  home  how  vested  interests  can 
mar  a  record  of  possible  achievement  by  restrictive  action. 
The  blood  is  sold  to  a  contractor,  who,  however,  is  compelled 
to  sell  back  to  the  meat  trade  such  quantities  of  this  article 
as  may  be  required.  A  proportion  of  the  offal  is  also  sold 
by  the  meat  trade. 

Diseased  meat,  condemned  as  unfit  for  human  consump- 
tion, is  treated  by  the  authorities  in  the  Scott  plant  which 
they  have  acquired.  The  waste  is  thoroughly  sterilized  by 
steam,  the  residuals,  comprising  non-edible  tallow,  meat  fibre 
and  bones  being  sold.  The  plant  cost  £600 — $3,000. 
The  working  costs  may  be  set  down  at  approximately  £200 — 
$1,000 — per  annum,  while  the  income  from  the  sale  of  the 
uncertain  quantities'  of  meat  of  which  disposal  is  made 
averages  about  £430 — $2,150 — per  year.  The  hoofs  and 
spurs  of  the  feet  of  cattle,  the  parings  of  ox-feet,  a  small 
proportion  of  waste  offal,  and  the  manure  originating  in 
the  slaughter-house,  are  sold  by  the  Corporation.  The  sum 
derived  from  these  sources  during  the  1917-18  financial 
year  amounted  to  £533  5s. — $2,666.25 — while  the  revenue 
from  the  sale  of  blood  was  £437  ns. — $2,187.75.  All  things 
considered  it  must  be  conceded  that  the  by-products  result- 
ing from  the  operation  of  the  slaughter-house  by  the 
Corporation  of  the  Scottish  city  are  fully  utilized,  although 
the  defects  arising  from  divided  responsibility  for  the 
development  and  disposal  of  the  wastes  are  obvious. 

Divided  interests  exert  another  reactive  influence.  The 
public  authorities  are  debarred  from  making  full  avail  of 
the  latest  improvement  in  the  art  and  craft  of  waste  recovery. 
For  instance,  although  the  leading  abattoirs  of  these  islands 
have  acquired  reasonably  up-to-date  plants,  they  are  all 
operated  upon  the  open  steam  principle,  with  and  without 
vacuum.  The  method,  while  satisfactory  so  far  as  it  goes, 
does  not  offer  the  means  of  securing  the  utmost  from  the 
available  material.  But  the  authorities  do  not  feel  justified 
in  going  to  the  expense  of  acquiring  the  latest  appliances 


106  MILLIONS  FROM  WASTE 

for  the  prosecution  of  the  work  of  reclamation,  an  attitude 
which  is  perfectly  explicable  in  the  circumstances. 

Of  course,  the  community  suffers,  though  imperceptibly. 
The  plants  in  question  allow  a  certain  proportion  of  waste 
to  be  lost  which  in  the  course  of  the  year  represents  an  im- 
posing figure.  Furthermore,  the  whole,  or  the  greater  part, 
of  the  "  stick  liquor  "  or  gelatinous  liquid  thrown  off  during 
the  fat  reclamation  process  is  lost,  being  allowed  to  escape 
down  the  drains.  The  abandonment  of  the  stick  liquor  is 
regrettable  because  it  constitutes  a  waste  capable  of  being 
treated  with  profit,  as  I  explain  later.  But  it  is  doubtful 
whether  the  average  municipal  plant,  even  if  it  had  absolutely 
unfettered  control  of  all  the  waste  products  arising  from  the 
slaughter  of  cattle  for  food,  would  be  in  the  position  to  treat 
the  stick  liquor  to  commercial  advantage.  An  evaporative 
plant  would  have  to  be  incorporated  to  concentrate  the 
gelatinous  substance  to  the  desired  density,  and  only  in  a  few 
instances  would  the  quantity  of  material  treated  be  adequate 
to  render  the  utilization  of  the  stick  liquor  profitable.  But 
this  constitutes  an  additional  argument  for  centralized  meat 
packing  and  offal  exploitation  in  these  islands. 

Accordingly  effort  is  exclusively  confined  to  the  recovery  of 
the  grease.  I  have  described  the  outstanding  features  of  the 
vacuum  system  in  a  previous  chapter,  to  which  I  would 
refer  the  reader  desiring  enlightenment  in  connection  there- 
with. The  grease  is  drawn  off  by  a  special  skimming  device 
into  a  fat  tank  to  be  clarified.  Then  it  is  run  into  barrels 
or  other  suitable  receptacles  for  transport.  It  is  scarcely 
necessary  to  point  out  that  the  grease  and  tallow  thus  obtained 
from  condemned  meat  and  other  offal,  although  thoroughly 
sterilized  in  the  rendering  process,  are  graded  only  as  fit  for 
the  manufacture  of  soap  and  other  articles  of  utility,  as 
distinct  from  products  of  edible  importance. 

The  term  "  offal  "  in  its  application  to  meat  residues  is 
somewhat  ambiguous.  It  not  only  comprises  material 
coinciding  with  the  general  interpretation  of  the  term, 
but  certain  portions  of  the  animal  which  are  really  suited 
to  the  preparation  of  foodstuffs  for  the  table.  Consequently 
all  grease  recovered  from  the  digester  is  not  necessarily 
adapted  to  manufacturing  purposes  only.  In  these  circum 
stances  it  is  necessary  to  grade  the  fat  before  treatment, 
the  fresh  fat,  which  is  quite  suitable  for  yielding  material 


OFFAL  107 

adapted  to  the  preparation  of  margarine,  for  instance,  being 
kept  distinct  from  the  lower  grades  which  cannot  possibly 
be  classed  as  edible.  Selection  and  separation  treatment 
of  the  two  grades — edible  and  inedible — are  profitable 
because,  while  both  are  in  keen  demand,  it  is  the  former 
which  is  able  to  command  the  higher  market  figure.  But 
when  edible  fats  are  sought  it  is  preferable  to  employ  the 
steam- jacketed  digester  because  the  fat  thus  obtained, 
from  the  fact  that  the  steam  is  not  brought  into  contact 
with  the  material  during  the  cooking  process,  is  of  enhanced 
quality,  being  sweeter,  while  all  the  natural  properties  of 
the  fat  are  retained  for  reasons  already  set  forth. 

Although,  therefore,  the  most  popular  system  in  vogue 
for  reclaiming  fat  from  slaughter-house  residues  is  exposed 
to  criticism,  owing  to  what  may  be  described  as  lack  of 
efficiency  in  operation  due  to  the  recovery  of  the  fat  not 
being  as  high  as  it  might  be,  it  appears  to  meet  the  conditions 
of  the  average  municipal  abattoir.  City  and  borough 
corporations,  unlike  private  organizations,  are  not  in  the 
position  to  scrap  an  existing  plant  for  one  which  is  of  later 
date  and  greater  efficiency,  because  there  is  not  the  same 
incentive  to  reap  the  utmost  benefits  attainable  as  prevails 
under  private  conditions  where  the  full  brunt  of  competition 
is  encountered.  Of  course,  the  initiative  of  corporations 
is  just  as  pronounced  as  that  of  private  firms  and  individuals, 
but  it  is  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule.  Furthermore, 
the  municipality  is  not  in  the  position  to  run  a  plant  under 
full  load,  or  even  at  a  uniform  pressure  the  whole  time.  It 
is  only  able  to  handle  the  waste  as  it  accumulates  during 
its  own  abattoir  operations.  On  the  other  hand,  the  private 
exploiter  can  acquire  a  plant  of  such  capacity  as  to  cope 
with  the  steady  flow  of  material  from  the  slaughter-houses, 
thereby  keeping  the  by-product  recovery  installation  working 
steadily  at  a  point  approaching  its  productive  limits. 

Nevertheless,  the  results  achieved  with  the  prevailing 
type  of  plant  afford  interesting  reading,  although  it  is  some- 
what misleading  to  cite  them.  The  material  varies  so  widely 
both  in  quantity  and  quality,  while  the  ultimate  fat-yield 
likewise  fluctuates  markedly.  A  fat  bullock  which  has  been 
condemned  would  naturally  be  expected  to  furnish  a  good 
contribution  of  fat.  On  the  other  hand,  only  a  low  percentage 
could  reasonably  be  anticipated  from  a  lean  cow?     In  these 


108 


MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 


circumstances  a  comparison  without  full  details  concerning 
the  material  handled  is  difficult.  The  figures  available 
may  be  set  down  as  being  representative,  though  they  should 
be  accepted  as  being  typical  rather  than  empirical. 

A  consignment  of  condemned  meat,  weighing  2,240  lb., 
was  placed  in  the  digester.  The  quantities  of  the  respective 
materials  recovered  were  : — 


Tallow 

Fibrine  01  meat-meal 

Bone-meal 


Lb.  Per  cent. 

336  or  15 

392-428  or  17^-20 

280-336  or  12J-15 


In  another  instance  a  somewhat  heavier  consignment 
of  condemned  meat  was  committed  to  the  recovery  plant. 
Its  composition  was  : — 


Lb. 

Beef 

. . 

84,000 

Pork 

. 

1,607 

Mutton 

•          • .           . . 

8l8 

Veal 

. 

354 

Offal 

Total 

..      20,370 

..    107,149 

The  tallow  yield  was  21,638  lb.,  or  20  per  cent,  of  the  total 
volume  passed  through  the  digester.  Pronounced  quantities 
of  the  fibrine  and  bone-meal  were  also  secured.  But  the 
tallow  yield  alone  should  serve  to  convince  even  the  most 
sceptical  that  it  pays  to  submit  condemned  meat  and  slaughter- 
house refuse  to  a  process  of  by-product  recovery.  It  was 
not  so  many  years  ago  that  such  valuable  waste  met  with 
an  untimely  end — incineration  in  the  destructor  as  the 
most  effective  and  economical  means  for  its  disposal.  Had 
this  practice  been  followed  in  the  instance  under  review 
the  authorities  would  have  allowed  material  worth,  according 
to  current  market  quotations,  at  least  £500 — $2,500 — to 
vanish  up  the  chimney  in  preference  to  the  display  of  a  little 
exertion  and  knowledge  to  secure  what  is  in  such  wide  and 
urgent  request — the  fat. 

While  the  average  organization,  either  municipal  or 
private,  conducts  operations  upon  too  limited  a  scale  to 
deal  with  the  gelatinous  or  "  stick  liquor,"  the  large  establish- 


OFFAL  109 

merits,  on  the  other  hand,  are  confronted  with  such  immense 
quantities  thereof  as  to  render  its  further  treatment  justifi- 
able and  profitable.  But  the  liquid  is  extremely  thin  or 
weak,  that  is  low  in  the  gelatinous  constituent  in  its  crude 
form,  and  so  requires  to  be  concentrated.  To  effect  this  at  the 
lowest  cost  it  should  be  passed  through  the  Scott  multiple 
effect  vacuum  evaporators.  These  are  heated  by  the  exhaust 
steam.  In  this  form  of  evaporator  the  heating  effect  of 
the  steam  is  multiplied  in  several  stages,  thus  doing  so  many 
times  more  work  for  one  supply  of  fuel  as  compared  with 
a  simple  evaporator.  The  evaporation  proceeds  progressively 
and  continuously,  the  liquor  leaving  the  evaporator  at  a  high 
degree  of  concentration  owing  to  the  water  having  been 
driven  off.  The  gelatinous  residue  accruing  from  this  treat- 
ment may  be  blended  with  the  fibrine  or  meat-meal,  thereby 
enhancing  the  value  of  the  latter,  which  thus  becomes  enriched 
with  ammonia  and  protein  to  an  appreciable  degree. 

For  some  reason  or  other  the  treatment  of  the  "  stick 
liquor  "  has  not  aroused  the  measure  of  serious  attention 
in  these  islands  which  it  deserves.  While,  of  course,  greater 
results  are  attainable  from  treatment  of  the  liquid  upon 
a  huge  scale,  yet  relatively  small  quantities  can  be  exploited 
very  profitably,  because  the  jelly  finds  an  attractive  market 
as  crude  tub  size,  the  demand  for  which  to-day  is  somewhat 
keen  and  firm.  Doubtless  hesitation  to  turn  the  stick  liquor 
to  economic  account  is  due  to  lack  of  knowledge  concerning 
the  improvements  in  the  rendering  process,  and  the  difficulty 
encountered  in  this  direction  in  the  past.  Under  the  old 
system,  where  the  practice  was  to  evaporate  these  liquors 
in  open  vessels,  the  nuisance  created  constituted  the  insur- 
mountable obstacle.  The  work  could  not  be  carried  out 
without  polluting  the  whole  neighbourhood.  With  the 
Scott  evaporator,  however,  no  more  nuisance  is  created  in 
concentrating  the  offensive  liquor  than  attends  the  exploita- 
tion of  noisome  fats  by  the  patent  digesting  process,  for 
the  simple  reasons  that  the  work  is  conducted  in  closed  vessels, 
and  all  obnoxious  vapours  thrown  off  during  the  treatment 
are  led  to  the  furnace  to  be  consumed,  escape  of  the  free 
gases  into  the  air  being  rendered  totally  impossible. 

British  waste  exploiters  are  beginning  to  appreciate  the 
advantages  of  the  closed  evaporative  system,  and  in  their 
determination  to  secure  every  retrievable   ounce  of  com- 


110  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

mercially  valuable  products  from  waste  are  now  devoting 
greater  attention  to  the  stick  liquor.  The  policy  is  one 
which  cannot  fail  to  pay  so  long  as  it  is  conducted  along 
the  correct  lines  such  as  I  have  indicated. 

Before  leaving  the  question  of  the  stick  liquor  it  is  curious 
to  remark  how  some  firms,  while  complimenting  themselves 
upon  the  assiduity  and  diligence  with  which  they  treat 
their  wastes,  are  yet  likely  to  allow  a  certain  material,  and 
one  which  is  of  distinct  value  to  their  own  businesses,  to 
slip  through  their  fingers  merely  from  lack  of  knowledge. 
The  abandonment  of  the  stick  liquor  arising  from  the  digestive 
treatment  of  meat-waste  represents  an  interesting  example 
of  such  inadvertence. 

Many  manufacturers  dealing  with  meat  products  have 
installed  a  fat-recovery  system  for  the  treatment  of  their 
waste  upon  the  spot,  the  primary  idea  being  to  secure  the 
good  edible  fat  for  re-use  in  connection  with  their  own 
processes.  Furthermore,  from  their  association  with  the 
cooked-meat  trade  they  find  it  necessary  to  absorb  material 
quantities  of  gelatine  to  carry  out  the  glazing  work  in  the 
preparation  of  brawn,  pies  and  other  dainties.  They  purchase 
the  crude  gelatine  for  the  purpose,  submitting  it  to  careful 
treatments  to  adapt  it  to  their  varying  requirements.  Yet, 
if  they  but  knew  it,  they  have  no  need  to  spend  a  single  penny 
— or  cent — upon  gelatine  wherewith  to  conduct  the  final 
appetizing  touches  to  their  wares.  They  have  as  much  of 
this  raw  material  as  they  can  possibly  require  immediately 
to  hand  in  the  stick  liquor,  and  which,  in  the  majority  of 
instances,  they  allow  to  escape. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  this  liquid  residue  is  far  preferable 
to  the  commercial  gelatine  which  they  buy  for  glazing 
purposes.  They  need  only  to  attach  an  evaporator  to  their 
recovery  plant  to  bring  about  its  concentration.  But  this  is 
not  the  only  advantage.  The  gelatine  has  to  be  of  varying 
densities  or  strengths  according  to  its  precise  application. 
When  they  have  their  own  evaporator  this  desideratum  is 
readily  fulfilled.  It  is  only  necessary  to  draw  off  the  material 
from  the  evaporators  when  it  has  reached  the  requisite  degree 
of  concentration  for  immediate  use.  Not  only  is  appreciable 
time  saved,  but  the  up-to-date  firms  are  better  off  in 
pocket  because  they  are  utilizing  a  waste  for  which  otherwise 
they  would  have  to  employ  a  purchased  commodity.     Even 


OFFAL  111 

if  they  conduct  concentration  to  the  absolute  it  does  not 
matter  ;  the  article  is  then  recovered  in  the  form  of  an  edible 
jelly.  This  can  be  clarified,  if  desired,  to  be  sold  as  such, 
or  it  can  be  sold  to  fellow-manufacturers  who  do  not  happen 
to  have  such  a  plant.  Failing  such  disposal  there  is  no 
difficulty  in  selling  the  jellied  mass  as  tub  size. 

In  a  previous  chapter  I  have  described  the  reclam- 
ation process  practised  by  the  military  authorities  in  con- 
nection with  bones  arising  from  the  cutting-up  of  meat 
for  the  army,  as  well  as  those  recovered  from  the  swill-tubs. 
As  indicated,  however,  exploitation  is  conducted  only  to 
a  certain  point,  when  the  bones  are  handed  over  to  the 
degreasers.  It  is  then  that  the  true  recovery  of  the  commercial 
constituents  of  the  bone  commences.  The  bone  is  an  invaluable 
friend  to  the  human  race  as  an  article  of  commerce,  though 
it  is  to  be  feared  that  what  may  be  described  as  the  "  bone 
tree  "  is  only  imperfectly  understood.  Its  far-reaching  value 
as  a  fertilizer  is  certainly  appreciated,  but  this  really  repre- 
sents the  final  application  of  the  article,  and  may  be  said 
to  be  the  only  remaining  field  of  utility  for  the  ultimate  residue 
of  a  residue.  Bones  enter  into  a  wide  range  of  industrial 
and  manufacturing  operations.  For  this  reason  they  should 
be  carefully  gathered  and  retained  for  surrender  to  recog- 
nized collecting  mediums  rather  than  suffer  abandonment 
or  destruction. 

The  housewife  is  prone  to  regard  them  as  mere  waste 
when  she  has  extracted  the  utmost  recoverable  value  there- 
from in  the  kitchen.  She  may  possibly  retain  them  until 
the  itinerant  specialist  in  this  commodity,  to  wit,  the  rag- 
and-bone  man,  comes  round,  in  which  event  it  is  sure  to  be 
sped  once  more  on  a  journey  of  industrial  exploitation. 
But  at  least  one-third  of  the  bones  which  enter  the  households 
of  Britain  escape  reclamation.  They  are  wantonly  wasted, 
and  it  is  to  be  feared  that  the  kitchen  stove  is  mainly  respon- 
sible for  this  loss.  The  volume  of  bones  which  should  be 
forthcoming  from  domestic  circles  in  Great  Britain,  were 
the  dictates  of  thrift  religiously  followed,  is  scarcely  appre- 
ciated, but  it  is  estimated  that  the  supply  should  be  at 
least  ioo  tons  per  week  from  every  million  members  of 
the  population. 

In  these  islands  the  bones  are  divided  into  two  broad 
classes.     The  one  division,  comprising  what  is  known  as 


112  MILLIONS  FROM  WASTE 

"  green "  (raw)  bones,  represents  those  collected  from 
butchers'  shops,  bacon-cutting  works,  and  other  similar 
sources.  The  second  class,  denned  as  "  streeters,"  include 
those  forthcoming  from  the  recognized  collectors  of  such 
waste,  hotels,  restaurants,  clubs,  and  private  houses,  and 
are  those  which  have  been  passed  through  one  or  more 
cooking  processes. 

In  the  case  of  green  bones  it  is  customary  to  digest  them, 
when  really  fresh,  with  open  steam  to  recover  the  edible 
fat.  Shank  and  marrow  bones,  as  distinct  from  rough 
bones,  are  also  able  to  yield  a  certain  proportion  of  edible 
fat,  and  after  having  been  digested  or  boiled  still  retain  a 
considerable  percentage  of  grease  which  it  pays  to  extract. 
Consequently  these,  together  with  a  certain  quantity  of 
less  fresh  green  bones,  and  the  streeters,  are  then  passed 
through  the  benzine  extractor  to  be  degreased  down  to 
i  per  cent. 

The  shank  and  marrow  bones  are  sawn  up,  the  centre 
sections  being  selected  for  the  production  of  such  useful 
articles  as  knife  and  fork  handles,  buttons,  and  other  utili- 
tarian commodities  for  which  their  composition  renders 
them  eminently  suitable.  The  ends  or  knuckles  are  degreased 
by  submission  to  the  solvent  extraction  process,  and  then, 
in  some  works,  are  subjected  to  further  chemical  treatment, 
which  is  somewhat  elaborate,  to  be  converted  into  baking- 
powder. 

Otherwise  the  bones,  after  being  degreased,  are  passed 
through  other  processes  for  the  extraction  of  their  gelatinous 
constituent.  This  is  secured  in  the  form  of  a  liquor  which 
is  evaporated  in  vacuo  to  a  jelly.  The  last-named  is 
cooled  into  cakes  and  then  dried  on  nets,  or,  if  preferred, 
the  liquor  may  be  dried  direct  into  glue-powder.  By  following 
a  more  complicated  process  gelatine  can  also  be  prepared 
from  the  degreased  bones.  But  the  gelatine  thus  obtained 
does  not  compare  in  quality  with  that  extracted  from  skins. 
The  degelatinizing  process  is  not  always  followed,  for  the 
reason  that  some  makers  prefer  to  produce  the  higher  quality 
bone-meal  which  is  procurable  from  non-degelatinized 
bone.  Obviously,  however,  the  more  profitable  and  economic 
procedure  is  to  pass  the  bones  through  an  associated  glue 
plant. 

The    ultimate    residue,    whether    degelatinised    or    not, 


OFFAL  113 

is  a  bone-meal  which  constitutes  the  well-known  fertilizer. 
The  bone-meal,  to  be  of  the  utmost  feeding  value  to  the  soil, 
should  carry  little  or  no  fat.  At  the  same  time,  however, 
it  should  be  rich  in  ammonia  and  phosphoric  acid  or  super- 
phosphate, which  is  determined  in  terms  of  tribasic  phosphate 
of  lime.  To  show  how  these  requirements  can  be  adequately 
fulfilled  by  submitting  the  raw  waste  to  a  complete  recovery 
process,  such  as  I  have  described,  an  analysis  of  a  typical 
bone-meal  produced  from  degreased  bones — degreased  by 
the  benzine  extraction  process — but  which  have  not  been 
degelatinized,  is  given  thus  : — 

Per  cent. 

Tribasic  phosphate  of  lime    . .          . .          . .  4660 

Nitrogen,  6-07  per  cent.  —  ammonia. .          . .  7-37 

Moisture            . .          . .          . .          . .          . .  8-04 

Fat         1 

The  high  percentage  of  ammonia,  namely  7'37  per  cent., 
deserves  especial  notice  inasmuch  as  it  compares  with  a 
yield  of  4/5  per  cent.,  which  is  the  average  figure  recorded 
with  fertilizing  meal  obtained  from  steamed  bones.  It  may 
possibly  come  as  a  surprise  to  many  to  learn  that  it  is  the 
proportion  of  the  nitrogenous  content,  as  represented  by 
the  ammonia,  rather  than  the  phosphoric  acid  content, 
which  really  determines  the  commercial  value  of  this  manure. 
The  higher  the  figure  to  which  the  ammonia  figure  can  be 
forced  the  more  attractive  the  price  which  the  fertilizer  will 
command  upon  the  market.  Thus,  under  normal  conditions, 
every  1  per  cent,  rise  in  the  ammonia  constituent  will  increase 
the  price  of  the  bone-meal  by  14s. —  $3.50.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  1  percent,  increase  in  the  proportion  of  superphosphate 
only  serves  to  increase  the  price  of  the  meal  by  nd.  to 
is.  2d. — 22  to  28  cents. 

The  grease  obtainable  from  green  bones  varies  somewhat. 
It  is  affected  to  a  marked  degree  by  the  skill  and  care  with 
which  the  butcher  wields  his  knife.  If  the  bone  should 
be  scraped  very  clean  and  carefully,  naturally  the  bulk  of 
the  attached  fat  is  removed.  But  an  average  collection 
of  green  bones  will  jdeld  about  15  per  cent.,  or  360  lb.,  of 
fat  per  ton  of  bones  treated,  while  the  dry  bone-meal  will 
range  from  1,286  to  1,344  lb.  Bones  which  have  been 
collected    from    marine    store    dealers    and    rag-and-bone 

8 


114  MILLIONS   FROM   WASTE 

merchants  are  not  so  liberal  in  fat  yield.  The  repeated 
cooking  to  which  they  have  been  subjected  in  connection 
with  the  preparation  of  dishes  for  the  table  relieves  them 
of  approximately  5  per  cent,  of  the  fat  which  they  originally 
carried,  i.e.  in  the  raw  condition.  Consequently,  degreasing 
only  enables  about  10  per  cent.,  or  250  lb.,  of  fat  to  be  recovered 
from  every  ton  of  bones  treated.  In  this  instance  the  bone- 
meal  yield  may  be  set  down  at  1,568  to  1,680  lb.  per  ton  of 
bones.  The  grease  remaining  in  the  meal  varies  from  0*5 
to  1  per  cent. 

As  may  logically  be  supposed,  cattle-slaughtering  for  food 
produces  large  quantities  of  blood.  This  is  an  extremely 
valuable  residue,  and  so  is  carefully  collected  in  suitable 
vessels.  It  is  then  transferred  to  shallow  receptacles  and 
permitted  to  stand  for  a  time.  Blood  is  composed  of  two 
fundamental  constituents — the  serum  and  the  clot  respec- 
tively. The  former,  which  is  the  albumen,  is  the  glutinous- 
like,  yellowish  liquid  which  comes  to  the  surface,  the  clot 
settling  to  form  as  it  were  a  sediment.  The  serum  is  recovered 
by  skimming  with  a  suitable  device,  to  be  distributed  in 
extremely  thin  layers,  applied  with  a  brush,  to  dry.  Such 
a  careful  procedure  is  imperative  owing  to  the  difficulty 
of  drying  out  albumen.  When  dry  the  blood-albumen  is 
peeled  in  the  form  of  thin  flakes.  Its  applications  are 
numerous,  one  of  the  most  important  being  its  employment 
for  the  clarification  of  sugar.  The  clot  is  likewise  secured 
to  be  sent  to  the  special  plant,  where  it  is  also  dried. 

It  is  common  knowledge  that  blood  constitutes  a  magni- 
ficent fertilizer,  and  this  is  the  purpose  to  which  the  dried 
clot  is  applied.  In  a  well-designed  vacuum  drying  plant, 
such  as  the  Scott,  which  has  been  designed  especially  to 
treat  such  residue,  the  efficiency  is  high.  The  yield  from 
the  clot  may  be  said  to  range  from  25  to  30  per  cent. — 560  to 
672  lb. — per  ton  of  raw  clot  treated,  and  is  recovered  in  the 
form  of  a  rich  red  dry  powder. 

One  great  objection  levelled  against  the  recovery  of  the 
blood  for  fertilizing  purposes  has  been  the  very  offensive 
odour  which  is  thrown  off  during  the  drying  operation.  But 
when  the  task  is  conducted  under  the  vacuum  system  no 
such  nuisance  is  created,  because  the  obnoxious  gases  are 
led  to  the  fire  to  suffer  combustion.  In  dryers  of  the  con- 
ventional type,  in  which  the  noxious  gases  are  removed  by 


OFFAL  115 

the  aid  of  an  exhausting  fan,  or  suffer  discharge  into  the 
chimney,  the  process  does  represent  an  intolerable  nuisance 
to  the  neighbourhood,  because  there  is  nothing  to  prevent 
the  pollution  of  the  atmosphere.  Furthermore,  and  this 
is  the  most  important  point  to  remember,  by  drying  the 
blood  under  the  vacuum  system  the  ammonia  content  of 
the  waste,  which  normally  is  high,  can  be  preserved  to  the 
full,  owing  to  the  drying  operation  being  carried  out  at  a 
much  lower  temperature  than  is  incidental  to  the  usual 
practice. 

Dried  blood  appeals  to  the  farmer  for  the  nourishment 
of  his  land  essentially  because  of  its  pronounced  proportion 
of  nitrogen  or  ammonia.  Consequently  it  is  incumbent  to 
keep  this  figure  as  high  as  possible  and  thus  secure  the  advan- 
tages of  market  quotation.  Naturally  the  percentage  thereof 
in  the  resultant  meal  will  vary  strikingly  according  to  the 
drying  process  practised.  Ammonia  is  an  exceedingly 
volatile  ingredient,  its  tendency  to  escape  being  accentuated 
as  the  temperature  employed  is  increased.  It  is  only  by 
keeping  the  heat  factor  at  a  low  level  consistent  with  the 
complete  fulfilment  of  the  desired  operation,  that  the  ammonia 
can  be  retained.  Under  the  vacuum  system  this  end  is 
assured,  owing  to  the  low  boiling-point  due  to  the  reduced 
pressure  or  vacuum.  A  typical  analysis  of  vacuum-dried 
clot  blood  may  be  cited  : — 

Per  cent. 

Moisture       . .  .  .  .  .  . .        9 

Mineral  matter        . .  . .  .  .        i*6i 

Nitrogen        . .  . .  . .  . .      14*02 

\]=ammonia        ..  ..      i7-o2 

In  cases  where  the  albumen  is  not  required  separately  the 
whole  blood  is  dried  without  being  separated  or  "  clotted." 
It  is  obvious  from  what  I  have  related,  that  the  recovery 
of  by-products  from  what  has  always  been  regarded  as 
waste  of  a  most  repulsive  character,  that  is  from  the  popular 
point  of  view,  can  be  turned  to  striking  commercial  and 
industrial  account.  Similarly  it  is  only  too  apparent  that 
such  by-product  reclamation  as  is  possible  demands  a  plant 
of  the  most  complete  description,  to  ensure  all  and  every 
substance  of  utilitarian  value  being  secured  along  the  most 
efficient  lines  and  to  the  uttermost  ounce. 


116  MILLIONS   FROM    WASTE 

The  day  has  gone  when  the  crude  methods  which  sufficed 
to  satisfy  individual  or  specific  requirements  should  be 
continued.  To  endeavour  to  render  it  profitable  to  recover 
but  one  article  out  of  many  which  are  reclaimable  simul- 
taneously, and  for  the  expenditure  of  only  a  little  more 
effort,  time  and  money,  may  be  compared  with  mining  for 
one  hundred  carat  diamonds  and  allowing  all  those  of  lesser 
weight  to  fall  back  into  the  earth. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

TURNING   WASTES   INTO   PAPER 

Paper  has  been  described  as  the  World's  Friend.  Truly 
the  application  is  apt,  when  we  recall  the  varied,  and,  in 
some  instances,  almost  incredible  uses  to  which  it  is  put, 
from  carpets  to  boxes,  wheels  of  infinite  variety  to  artificial 
flowers,  table  linen  to  boards.  Little  wonder,  therefore, 
that  we  have  come  to  regard  it  as  indispensable  to  our  every- 
day social  and  industrial  existence.  Being  cheap,  abundant 
and  easy  to  obtain,  is  it  surprising  that  we  became  extravagant 
in  its  use  ?  We  scarcely  ever  hesitate  to  bestow  even  a 
passing  thought  as  to  where,  and  how,  we  get  it.  We  talk 
glibly  of  "  imported  "  without  pausing  a  moment  to  reflect 
upon  the  real  significance  of  the  expression.  It  was  not 
until  war  burst  upon  us  to  deliver  its  many  disconcerting 
jolts  that  we  came  to  our  senses,  and  were  then  compelled 
to  acknowledge  that  while  paper  may  be  a  most  tractable 
servant  it  is  certainly  a  tyrannous  master. 

How  many  people  would  credit  the  statement  that  paper 
could  exercise  any  influence  upon  the  cost  of  living  ?  Not 
one  in  a  thousand  it  is  safe  to  hazard.  But  let  us  reflect. 
In  the  days  when  paper  or  cardboard  was  forthcoming  in 
plenty  the  tradesman  never  contemplated  for  a  moment 
the  suggestion  that  he  should  be  sparing  in  his  use  of  the 
commodity,  or  even  saddle  his  customer  with  the  cost  of 
this  indispensable  wrapping  material.  What  if  a  sheet  of 
brown  paper  cost  a  farthing — half  a  cent — or  paper  bags 
could  be  secured  for  ten  a  penny  (2  cents)  ?  The  expense 
was  so  trivial  as  to  be  insignificant.  He  could  readily  shoulder 
it  without  any  financial  detriment  to  himself.  But  when 
that  sheet  of  paper  cost  approximately  ifd. — 3!  cents — or 
when  the  bag  involved  an  outlay   of    i^d. — 3  cents — the 

,117 


118  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

tradesman,  turning  over  in  his  mind  the  huge  quantities  he 
would  be  compelled  to  provide  during  the  business  of  the 
day,  regarded  the  whole  question  in  a  different  spirit.  He 
declined  to  bear  the  burden,  and  so  promptly  passed  it  on 
to  the  customer. 

To  grasp  the  paper  situation  as  it  affects  this  island 
kingdom  we  must  hark  back  to  the  glorious  days  preceding 
1914.  We  made  paper  upon  a  relatively  extensive  scale  in 
our  own  mills,  and  the  industry  flourished  amazingly.  But 
to  what  extent  did  indigenous  materials  enter  into  the  com- 
position of  the  article  ?  Barely  10  per  cent.  We  preferred 
to  buy  90  per  cent,  of  our  raw  materials  from  foreign  mills 
brought  into  existence  for  this  especial  purpose,  and,  be  it 
remarked  en  passant,  the  foreigner  found  it  highly  lucrative 
to  trade  upon  our  disinclination  to  prepare  the  products 
ourselves. 

A  British  firm,  which  had  built  huge  mills  in  Scandinavia 
for  the  preparation  of  the  essential  raw  material,  disposed 
of  its  financial  interests  to  a  foreign  concern.  The  bargain 
was  settled  for  a  round  £7,000,000 — $35,000,000  !  Surely 
this  transaction  suffices  to  demonstrate  that  there  is  big 
money  to  be  made  preparing  paper  pulp,  as  the  raw  material 
is  called,  for  British  paper  mills.  The  fact  that  in  pre-war 
days  we  imported  a  round  2,000,000  tons  of  pulp  and  paper 
during  the  course  of  the  year  serves  to  convey  some  idea 
of  the  magnitude  of  the  industry,  and  the  extent  to  which 
this  country  became  dependent  upon  foreign  sources  of 
supply. 

One  hundred  years  ago,  or  even  less,  the  British  paper- 
making  industry  was  a  staple.  The  paper  was  British  made 
from  British  materials.  In  the  light  of  this  knowledge  one 
may  well  ask  why,  and  how,  we  allowed  this  profitable  trade 
to  slip  through  our  fingers  ?  The  cause  was  not  far  to  seek. 
Our  old  pugnacious  friend  the  wasp  was  primarily  responsible 
for  the  passing  of  this  British  industry.  He,  from  his  paper- 
making  prowess  in  the  fabrication  of  his  wonderful  nest, 
set  certain  imaginative  men  thinking  hard.  If  this  humble 
insect  could  contrive  such  a  remarkably  tough  and  stout 
paper  for  home-building  purposes  from  wood  surely  it  was 
not  beyond  the  wit  of  men,  with  the  bewildering  array  of 
mechanical  and  chemical  handmaids  at  his  elbow,  to  do 
likewise  ! 


TURNING  WASTES   INTO  PAPER  119 

Accordingly  the  observant,  fertile,  and  patient  minds 
went  to  work.  Within  a  short  time  they  not  only  succeeded 
in  imitating  the  wasp,  but  evolved  such  a  simple  process  in 
the  doing  of  it  as  to  make  an  irresistible  appeal  to  commerce. 
Incidentally  while  this  one  line  of  investigation,  the  purely 
mechanical,  was  being  pursued  other  equally  brilliant  minds 
were  perfecting  a  second  means  of  achieving  a  similar  end 
by  mechanical-chemical  agency.  In  this  manner  commerce 
became  equipped  with  two  efficient  means  for  the  reduction 
of  trees  into  paper,  and  at  such  a  low  figure  as  to  render 
the  conventional  competitive  methods  impossible,  at  least 
for  the  cheapest  grades  of  paper,  such  as  are  employed  for 
our  newspapers,  popular  periodicals,  and  low-priced  books. 

To  reap  the  rich  rewards  which  invention  dangled  before 
commerce  only  two  fundamental  requirements  had  to  be 
fulfilled.  The  one  was  ample  cheap  power  in  close  proximity 
to  virtually  inexhaustible  supplies  of  the  essential  material, 
namely  soft  woods,  which  constituted  the  second  factor. 
Scandinavia  held  unrivalled  attractions  in  this  respect. 
Accordingly  the  princes  of  the  paper-making  industry  trekked 
to  Norway  and  Sweden,  to  convenient  points  amid  the 
endless  reaches  of  forest,  and  there  planted  huge  mills  beside 
waterfalls  and  swiftly  running  rivers,  which  were  harnessed 
to  provide  the  cheap  power  which  hydro-electric  energy 
offered.  The  outlook  was  additionally  alluring  from  the 
circumstance  that  these  mills,  metaphorically  speaking, 
could  be  established  within  the  proverbial  stone's  throw  of 
the  biggest  and  most  promising  markets  of  the  world. 

So  Scandinavia  succeeded  in  building  up  a  rich  monopoly 
which  experienced  continuous  prosperity  until  a  few  years 
ago.  Then  similar  activity  became  manifest  in  certain 
corners  of  Farther  Britain,  notably  in  Newfoundland,  Eastern 
Canada,  and  British  Columbia,  where,  owing  to  the  prevailing 
climatic  conditions  favouring  huge  reserves  of  suitable 
forests,  ribbed  with  abundant  water  power,  a  bold  bid  was 
made,  not  only  for  the  European  but  the  American  markets 
as  well.  For  the  first  time  in  its  history  the  Scandinavian 
interests  were  brought  full  tilt  against  powerful  competition. 

With  the  advent  of  the  halfpenny  newspaper,  the  popular 
periodical,  and  the  cheap  edition  of  a  favourite  author,  all 
of  which  depend  upon  mammoth  circulations  for  their 
financial    successes,    the    wood-pulp    industry    received    a 


120  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

tremendous  boom.  In  19 13  British  imports  from  Scandinavia 
aggregated  756,252  tons  valued  at  £3,533,509—  $17,667,545. 
Germany,  attracted  by  the  glamour  of  the  commercial 
possibilities  held  out  in  this  direction,  essayed  to  participate 
in  the  boom,  her  exports  of  pulp  to  these  islands  during 
the  above-mentioned  year  reaching  40,972  tons  worth 
£330,456 — $1,697,280.  In  comparison  with  the  figure  for 
Scandinavia  the  Teuton  contribution  may  appear  small,  but 
it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  this  represented  a  50  per  cent, 
increase  in  Germany's  favour  within  two  years.  During 
the  year  in  question  Canada  and  Newfoundland  also  swelled 
the  home  market,  the  aggregate  of  pulp  and  paper  accepted 
from  their  mills  by  Britain  being  119,742  tons  valued  at 
£279,374— $1,396,870. 

Then  came  the  war,  and  this  upset  the  upward  tendency 
of  the  foreign  manufacturers  to  an  alarming  degree,  as  well 
as  causing  distinct  stringency  among  ourselves.  Germany 
was  knocked  out  of  the  market  in  one  blow,  while  the  demand 
for  shipping  likewise  extinguished  the  Canadian  contributions. 
Then  came  the  appointment  of  a  Controller  to  adjust  the 
Scandinavian  situation,  and  official  action  in  regard  to  restric- 
tions, which  were  admittedly  severe,  threw  the  Scandinavian 
industry  all  sixes  and  sevens.  Some  idea  of  the  degree  to 
which  the  imports  of  paper  and  pulp  from  Scandinavia  were 
hit  may  be  gathered  from  the  figures  for  1918 — 390,000  tons 
as  compared  with  the  pre-war  supply  of  2,000,000  tons, 
representing  a  fall  of  82  per  cent. 

The  situation  at  home  assumed  an  ominous  aspect. 
Cutting  off  imports  reduced  supplies  to  a  figure  hopelessly 
below  demand.  The  issue  was  further  aggravated  from  the 
circumstance  that  the  domestic  industry  had  not  been  advan- 
ced to  the  position  where  it  could  take  up  the  producing 
reins  to  make  up  the  deficiency.  The  output  from  British 
mills  during  1918  only  approximately  equalled  the  importation 
for  the  year,  and  was  less  than  double  the  figure  at  which 
it  stood  five  years  before,  which  was  about  200,000  tons. 

In  these  circumstances  the  Controller  was  called  upon 
to  make  a  round  700,000  tons  of  paper  go  as  far  as  had 
2,000,000  in  pre-war  days.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  last- 
named  figure  was  short  of  the  mark,  for  the  simple  reason 
that  sources  of  consumption,  and  heavy  ones  at  that,  which 
had    been  non-existent    five   years    previously    had  sprung 


TURNING   WASTES   INTO   PAPER  121 

up  and  were  in  the  full  blaze  of  activity.  I  refer  to  the 
various  Government  departments  created  as  a  direct  result 
of  the  war. 

Where  does  all  the  paper  go  ?  To  the  lay  mind  this 
question  appears  impossible  of  a  comprehensive  answer. 
He  concedes  that  the  publishing  and  commercial  worlds, 
from  the  magnitude  of  their  operations,  must  absorb  colossal 
quantities,  but  this  reflection  does  not  bring  complete  comfort. 
During  the  war  period  it  was  not  so  difficult  to  reduce  the 
apparent  enigma  to  simple  explanation.  The  Stationery 
Office  devoured  paper  to  the  extent  of  57,000  tons  a  year. 
The  Ministry  of  Munitions  absorbed  1,000  tons  a  week  in 
the  actual  manufacture  of  missiles,  one  use  being  the  substi- 
tution of  aluminium  by  paper  for  filling  the  tips  of  bullets, 
while  fuse  cylinders  were  also  contrived  from  paper  instead 
of  from  tin.  The  Ministry  of  Food  called  for  400  to  500  tons 
of  paper  to  provide  the  cards  for  sugar,  meat  and  buttei 
rations,  while  the  issuance  of  the  subsequent  ration  books 
ran  away  with  another  750  tons.  The  War  Office  was 
probably  the  heaviest  consumer,  from  the  simple  fact  that 
all  jams  and  preserves  issued  to  the  army,  and  packed  in 
one-pound  consignments,  were  served  in  paper  cartons 
instead  of  tins.  Seeing  that  the  quantities  of  jams  issued 
in  this  manner  ran  into  millions,  the  consumption  of  paper 
for  the  containers  was  stupendous.  Such  zealous  and 
ingenious  recourse  to  paper  instead  of  metals  for  such  purposes 
was  readily  explicable.  For  instance,  at  the  time,  tin  was 
costing  about  £320 — $1,600 — per  ton  as  compared  with 
brown  paper  at  £35 — $175 — and  cardboard  at  £50 — $250 — 
per  ton  respectively.  It  was  to  the  advantage  of  the  nation 
to  abandon  costly  metals  whenever  and  wherever  a  paper 
substitute  was  equally  serviceable. 

To  counteract  the  shortage  in  supplies  from  abroad 
every  effort  was  made  to  extend  and  to  develop  the 
domestic  manufacturing  facilities.  This  was  not  such 
a  simple  task  as  it  appeared,  inasmuch  as  we  are 
sadly  lacking  in  the  reserves  of  the  necessary  material. 
We  possess  no  soft-wood  forests  waiting  to  be  turned  into 
paper.  In  these  circumstance  the  alternative  was  to  embark 
upon  a  voyage  of  discovery  and  experiment  in  the  hope  that 
an  efficient  inexpensive  range  of  substitutes  might  be  un- 
earthed to  take  the  place  of  the  imported  wood-pulp,  either 


122  MILLIONS   FROM   WASTE 

exclusively,  which  was  scarcely  to  be  expected,  or  to  a  very 
pronounced  degree. 

Official  intervention  brought  home  to  us  one  very  heavy 
wastage.  This  was  in  regard  to  the  pulp  which  we  imported. 
Two  different  kinds  of  pulp  are  produced  abroad  :  The 
one,  produced  after  the  manner  practised  by  our  friend  the 
wasp,  but  by  mechanical  agency,  is  known  as  mechanical 
pulp  ;  the  other,  contrived  by  the  aid  of  chemicals,  is  com- 
mercially known  as  chemical  or  sulphite  pulp.  In  so  far 
as  the  first  named  was  concerned  official  investigation  revealed 
that  the  Scandinavian  mills  were  accustomed  to  send  the 
article  in  a  wet  form.  Now,  seeing  that  wet  pulp  comprises 
50  per  cent,  of  moisture,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  vessels  bearing 
this  commodity — and  tonnage  was  severely  limited — were 
really  working  only  to  one-half  of  their  actual  carrying 
capacity.  With  every  ton  of  pulp  the  ships  were  compelled 
to  carry  one  ton  of  water,  and  to  ship  water  to  Britain  is 
comparable  with  sending  snow  to  Greenland. 

The  Scandinavian  mills  were  more  than  willing  to  ship 
wet  pulp  by  the  thousands  of  tons,  and  the  British  paper- 
makers  were  every  whit  as  ready  to  receive  it.  To  obtain 
the  raw  material  in  this  form  facilitated,  expedited  and 
cheapened  the  actual  paper-making  process.  It  was  another 
instance  of  British  readiness  to  sacrifice  every  other  interest 
upon  the  altars  of  cheapness  and  minimum  of  effort.  The 
Controller,  naturally,  demurred  against  paying  freight  for 
the  carriage  of  water  which  is  only  too  abundant  in  these 
islands,  and  forthwith  demanded  that  the  pulp  should  be 
sent  over  in  the  dry  form.  In  this  manner  he  achieved  a 
laudable  object  :  he  doubled  the  quantity  of  pulp  supplied 
to  Britain  without  calling  upon  a  further  ton  of  shipping 
for  the  purpose. 

The  pulp-makers  of  Scandinavia,  and  the  paper-makers 
of  Britain,  objected  to  this  rational  action.  Strong  protests 
were  levelled  against  the  new  order.  The  affected  interests 
went  to  great  length  to  explain  that  the  wet  pulp  was  essential, 
and  advanced  their  reasons — technical,  financial  and  other- 
wise, but  they  failed  to  upset  the  decision  which  had  been 
made.  The  Controller  was  not  seeking  the  unattainable, 
because  a  certain  proportion  of  dry  mechanical  pulp  has 
always  been  shipped  to  this  country.  It  was  merely  another 
instance  of  affected   interests  desiring  to  achieve  their  re- 


TURNING   WASTES   INTO   PAPER  123 

spective  purposes  along  the  lines  of  least  resistance.  In  no 
circumstances,  normal  or  war,  can  the  conveyance  of  water 
with  raw  material  to  these  islands  be  justifiable. 

The  reason  why  the  pulp-maker  was  so  anxious  to  ship 
his  pulp  wet  was  because  under  such  conditions  he  could 
market  it  at  a  lower  figure  and  dispatch  it  with  greater 
facility.  The  paper-maker  championed  the  wet  form  for 
the  reason  that  it  was  more  convenient  to  him  ;  he  was 
able  to  turn  it  straightaway  into  his  machines.  But  when 
imported  dry  the  pulp  must  be  subjected  to  certain  prelimin- 
ary treatment  which  involves  time,  trouble,  and  a  certain 
expense.  Consequently,  out  of  ioo  tons  of  mechanical 
pulp  normally  shipped  to  Britain,  only  one  ton  was  in  the 
dry  form  ;  the  other  99  tons  were  in  the  more  handy  wet 
form.  Certainly  there  are  accepted  technical  objections 
to  dry  pulp.  It  is  brittle  and  apt  to  chip.  But  wet  or  dry 
it  cannot  be  used  exclusively  and  solely  in  the  preparation 
of  even  the  lowest  grades  of  newspaper.  A  certain  proportion 
of  the  chemical  pulp  must  be  added  to  impart  the  requisite 
degree  of  firmness  and  stoutness  to  the  fabric. 

A  little  investigation  reveals  why  the  Scandinavian  pulp- 
makers  were  firmly  set  upon  shipping  the  pulp  wet.  In 
pre-war  days  the  British  paper-maker  paid  from  £2  5s.  to 
£2  10s. — $11.25  to  $12.50 — a  ton  for  the  moist  pulp  delivered 
at  a  British  port.  Freight  was  a  mere  bagatelle,  averaging 
about  5s. —  $1.25 — per  ton.  To  convert  the  wet  into  dry 
pulp  prior  to  shipment  the  Swedish  pulp-makers  must  use 
coal.  This,  thanks  to  hydro-electric  energy,  is  not  required  in 
the  fabrication  of  the  actual  pulp.  But  Sweden  is  deficient  in 
coal  resources  and  compliance  with  the  British  official  request 
involved  the  importation  of  British  coal.  Inasmuch  as  it 
takes  from  1,120  to  1,680  lb.  of  coal  to  dry  one  ton  of  pulp  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  Swedish  manufacturers  were  faced  with 
a  fuel  bill  which  was  likely  to  run  into  big  figures.  Under 
war  conditions  British  coal  was  expensive,  while  quality 
was  subject  to  wide  variation.  At  that  time  the  coal  com- 
manded from  £8  to  £10 — $40  to  $50 — per  ton  in  Sweden. 
Consequently,  to  his  disgust,  the  pulp-maker  was  confronted 
with  the  necessity  to  incur  an  extra  manufacturing  charge 
ranging  from  £4  to  £8 — $20  to  $40 — per  ton  of  pulp 
produced. 

It  is  to  be  feared  that  the  Swedish  manufacturers,  while 


124  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

anxious  to  sell  as  much  as  possible  to,  were  very  reluctant 
to  buy,  from  these  islands.  They  denounced  the  British 
official  decree  in  no  unmeasured  terms,  and  sought  by  every 
means  in  their  power  to  secure  its  withdrawal.  But  for 
once  British  authority  was  not  solicitous  of  the  interests 
of  the  foreigner.  Recognizing  the  futility  of  protest  the 
Scandinavian  makers  set  to  work  to  comply  with  our  demands, 
and  so  shipped  the  pulp  in  the  dry  form.  We  received  the 
benefits  accruing  from  this  line  of  action  because  we  received 
twice  as  much  pulp  as  formerly  for  the  same  amount  of 
tonnage.  True,  it  cost  us  more,  the  price  running  up  to 
£32 — $160 — per  ton,  but  it  is  to  be  feared  that  the  foreign 
manufacturers  took  full  advantage  of  the  peculiar  situation 
which  prevailed  in  accordance  with  that  inexorable  law  of 
supply  and  demand,  although  they  maintained  that  their 
manufacturing  charges  were  heavily  inflated,  not  only  from 
the  purchase  of  the  necessary  coal,  but  from  the  higher  wages 
which  labour  demanded.  But  even  at  the  above  figure  we 
derived  distinct  advantage.  Seeing  that  one  ton  of  dry 
represented  the  equivalent  to  two  tons  of  wet  pulp  we  were 
really  paying  at  the  rate  of  only  £16 — $80 — per  ton,  less  the 
sum  which  had  to  be  deducted  from  the  sale  of  our  coal. 
Restriction  of  freight  had  a  good  deal  to  do  with  the  en- 
hanced prices.  Only  250,000  tons  of  shipping  a  year  were 
allocated  to  this  traffic,  and  what  cost  5s. — $1.25 — a  ton 
to  ship  in  1913  cost  £13 — $65  per  ton  in  1918.  British  ships 
participating  in  this  trade  were  thus  able  to  get  back  some- 
thing of  the  heavy  prices  we  paid  to  the  foreigner  for  an 
indispensable  commodity.  But  even  £32 — $160 — per  ton 
for  dry  mechanical  pulp  contrasted  favourably  with  the 
chemical  pulp,  also  shipped  dry.  This,  which  before  the 
war  cost  £7  10s. — $37.50 — per  ton  shot  up  to  £47 — $235 
— a  ton  at  one  period,  and  recorded  £35 — $175 — per  ton 
during  1918,  while  paper,  even  of  the  lowest  grade,  which 
commanded  £10 — $50 — a  ton  in  1913,  realized  £45 — $225 
— per  ton  in  1918. 

Contemporaneously  with  the  adjustment  of  the  various 
questions  pertaining  to  the  Scandinavian  pulp  and  paper, 
the  authorities  set  to  work  to  develop  the  domestic  raw 
material  industry.  Obviously  the  most  promising  founts 
were  rags  and  waste-paper.  It  was  computed  that,  if  these 
available  sources  were  fully  exploited,  it  would  be  possible 


TURNING   WASTES   INTO   PAPER  125 

to  secure  some  300,000  tons  of  suitable  material  during  the 
year. 

However,  it  was  seen  that  the  first  step  would  be  to  instil 
into  the  minds  of  the  community  the  necessity  to  observe 
rigid  economy  in  the  use  of  paper.  Rationing  brought 
home  the  fact  that  a  paper  shortage  existed,  and,  of  itself, 
led  users  to  be  more  sparing  in  their  uses  of  this  article,  in 
precisely  the  same  way  as  similar  measures  effected  com- 
parative results  in  connection  with  foodstuffs  and  other 
commodities.  But  in  so  far  as  paper  is  concerned  it  is 
difficult  to  preach  the  gospel  of  economy  ;  it  has  been 
ridiculously  cheap  and  abundant  for  far  too  long.  Never- 
theless much  was  accomplished,  but  whether  the  lessons 
thus  imparted  have  been  taken  sufficiently  to  heart  as  to 
become  ingrained  is  problematical.  Reversion  to  former 
conditions  will  probably  promote  a  state  of  affairs  as  bad 
as,  if  not  worse  than,  before. 

The  wasteful  consumption  of  paper  was  by  no  means 
confined  to  any  particular  class  of  the  community.  Industry 
was  every  whit  as  improvident.  For  instance,  the  soap- 
making  trade  naturally  absorbs  immense  quantities  of  the 
article,  but  the  manufacturers  were  shown  how,  by  practising 
simple  saving  methods,  they  might  do  with  10,000  tons  less 
per  year,  which,  at  the  prices  then  prevailing,  represented 
a  round  £350,000 — $1,750,000 — per  annum.  To  one  firm 
alone  the  suggestion  represented  a  possible  economy  of 
£75,000 — $375,000 — a  year.  What  is  possible  of  attainment 
in  the  soap-making  industry  is  equally  feasible  in  other 
trades,  especially  those  identified  with  provisions.  If  such 
broad  economies  be  carried  out  the}?  could  scarcely  fail  to 
exercise,  under  competitive  trading  conditions,  an  appreciable 
influence  upon  the  price  of  the  products  concerned.  Conse- 
quently, paper,  as  already  indicated,  has  a  more  or  less 
direct  bearing  upon  the  cost  of  living. 

The  wastage  of  paper  throughout  the  country  is  appalling. 
Upon  the  completion  of  its  designed  function  the  material 
is  either  burned,  consigned  to  dust-bin,  or  allowed  to  pursue 
an  aimless  journey  at  the  mercy  of  the  wind  through  our 
highways  and  byways.  People  of  a  thrifty  turn  of  mind 
undoubtedly  save  their  waste,  disposing  of  it  at  intervals 
to  itinerant  collectors,  who  acquire  the  litter  of  the  house 
in  exchange  for  something  more  or  less  attractive,  if  not 
useful,  in  kind. 


126  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

Previous  to  the  war  very  little  of  this  waste  found  its 
way  back  to  the  domestic  paper  mills  to  be  re-made.  The 
percentage  of  waste  blended  with  new  pulp  was  very  low, 
certainly  not  more  than  2  per  cent.  Even  this  was  almost 
entirely  restricted  to  what  is  known  as  "  broke/'  that  is 
the  trimmings  from  the  reels  when  repairing  breakages  in 
the  continuous  lengths  running  through  the  printing  or 
paper-making  machines. 

Strange  to  relate,  nearly  the  whole  of  the  waste-paper 
recovered  from  the  household,  office  and  factory  was 
exported,  principally  to  the  United  States  of  America, 
until  an  American  firm,  discovering  Britain  to  be  a  waste- 
paper  mine,  established  itself  in  our  midst  to  salvage  an 
appreciable  quantity  of  what  we  regarded  as  a  nuisance. 
This  refuse  was  utilized  as  raw  material  for  the  manu- 
facture of  paper-boards,  the  American  analogue  to  our 
familiar  strawboard,  to  form  book  covers,  stout  packing, 
and  to  meet  other  conditions  where  adequate  protection 
to  contents  is  demanded.  This  became  a  prosperous  under- 
taking and  afforded  merely  another  instance  of  how  the 
stranger  within  our  gates  has  been  able  to  reap  material 
profit  at  our  expense  and  through  our  folly. 

Although  this  firm  absorbed  an  enormous  quantity  of 
our  waste-paper  it  could  not  cope  with  the  avalanche  of  this 
refuse.  Many  additional  thousands  of  tons  were  shipped 
annualfy  to  the  New  World  to  be  worked  up.  It  seems 
remarkable  that  the  Americans  should  have  found  it  profit- 
able to  collect  our  residue,  to  freight  it  across  3,000  miles 
of  ocean,  and  to  fabricate  therefrom  their  particular  range 
of  goods,  instead  of  turning  the  material  available  on  their 
own  side  to  such  account.  But  the  venture  proved  decidedly 
profitable  as  the  results  testified.  Indeed,  it  was  the  enter- 
prise of  this  pushing  firm  which  first  brought  home  to  us 
the  wealth  capable  of  being  derived  from  the  commercial 
exploitation  of  waste-paper,  and  which  led  us  to  introduce 
a  collecting  system  upon  an  organized  basis. 

When  the  authorities  grasped  the  significance  of  the  waste- 
paper  issue  they  promptly  took  steps  to  retain  the  whole 
of  the  residue  in  these  islands.  Export  was  prohibited  ;  it 
could  only  be  returned  to  British  mills.  A  country-wide 
appeal  was  made  urging  every  trader  and  every  private 
citizen  to  conserve  his  waste-paper,  whether  it  were  used 


TURNING   WASTES   INTO   PAPER  127 

envelopes,  newspapers,  postcards  or  fragments  of  brown 
paper.  So  urgent  became  the  demand  for  this  raw  material 
that  housewives  were  requested  to  ransack  their  cupboards 
and  lumber-rooms  for  odds  and  ends  of  every  description 
in  the  paper  line — old  novels,  abandoned  magazines  and 
what  not ;  business  houses,  workshops,  and  factories  were 
invited  to  indulge  in  spring-cleanings  to  turn  out  musty 
files  of  old  letters,  receipts,  memoranda,  obsolete  account 
books  and  other  accumulations  ;  paper  hangings  stripped 
from  walls  in  course  of  redecoration,  instead  of  being  burned, 
were  sedulously  bagged ;  even  hoardings  were  divested 
of  their  hard  thick  hides  of  superimposed  posters  to  provide 
food  for  the  paper  mills.  Municipal  authorities  were  urged 
to  participate  in  the  round-up,  since  it  was  recognized  that 
imposing  quantities  of  paper  evaded  all  other  methods  of 
recovery  from  inadvertent  committal  to  the  dust-bin.  In 
another  chapter  I  have  indicated  what  was  done  in  this 
direction. 

The  authorities  stimulated  the  great  national  paper-chase 
by  every  possible  artifice.  Waste-paper  organizers,  to  the 
number  of  thirty-five,  were  appointed  to  various  parts  of 
the  country  to  foster  and  to  supervise  the  collection  of  this 
refuse.  Licences  were  granted  to  approved  merchants 
authorizing  them  to  deal  in  the  article.  Prices  were 
fixed  and  graduated  according  to  the  quality  of  the 
waste,  and  upon  a  liberal  basis  to  encourage  one  and  all 
to  conserve  and  to  hand  over  their  accumulations  of  what 
they  considered  to  be  sheer  rubbish.  In  this  way  waste- 
paper  was  poured  back  into  the  British  mills  for  remanu- 
facture  in  a  steady  stream  of  4,300  tons  a  week.  For  a 
time  the  volume  was  maintained,  but  then  it  gradually 
and  persistently  declined  because  as  the  founts  became 
exhausted  the  quantity  of  paper  put  back  into  circulation 
suffered  a  steady  decrease. 

Despite  the  elaborate  precautions  observed,  and  the 
salvage  organizations  instituted,  a  vast  quantity  of  the 
refuse  escaped  recovery.  Paper  is  something  like  the  elusive 
pin  :  where  it  goes  no  one  appears  to  know.  During  the 
period  when  salvage  was  being  pressed  home  with  all  vigour 
the  British  mills  were  turning  out  about  700,000  tons  of 
paper  a  year.  Of  this  aggregate  approximately  one-fifth 
— 150,000  tons — went  to  the  army  in  the  field  in  France 


128  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

in  some  form  or  other.  A  further  150,000  tons  could 
not  be  expected  to  be  recovered  as  waste,  being  either 
retained  or  submitted  to  certain  necessary  applications  such 
as  filing,  the  lighting  of  fires,  and  so  on.  This  left  a  balance 
of  400,000  tons  which  went  into  circulation,  but  of  which 
only  200,000  tons  were  retrieved  to  be  sent  back  to  the  mills 
to  be  repulped.  What  became  of  the  outstanding  200,000 
tons  it  was  impossible  to  say  :  it  simply  disappeared.  Prob- 
ably much  suffered  destruction  through  ignorance,  while  no 
doubt  much  was  lost  through  being  soiled  to  such  a  degree 
as  to  be  beyond  redemption.  But  the  fact  remained  that 
of  the  700,000  tons  produced  at  least  50  per  cent.,  or  350,000 
tons — including  the  150,000  tons  sent  to  France — were 
completely  lost,  whereas  by  the  exercise  of  a  little  forethought, 
care  and  trouble  the  greater  part  thereof  might  have  been 
retrieved.  Through  negligence  or  ignorance  the  nation  was 
losing  a  round  £3,350,000 — $16,750,000 — a  year,  because 
the  paper  was  worth  at  least  one  penny — 2  cents — a  pound 
in  the  waste  form. 

From  the  magnitude  of  the  absolute  losses  it  is  obvious 
that  we  could  never  have  sustained  ourselves  for  long  upon 
the  forthcoming  supplies  of  waste-paper  and  the  diminished 
foreign  imports  of  pulp  to  serve  as  raw  materials.  Accordingly 
search  was  made  for  other  potential  raw  materials  of  domestic 
origin,  the  governing  principle  of  this  mission  being  to  place 
the  country  in  such  a  position  as  to  be  quite  independent  of 
the  foreigner  in  all  matters  pertaining  to  paper,  not  only 
during  the  war  period,  but  after  the  cessation  of  hostilities. 

Paper,  in  one  respect,  is  a  curious  manufactured  product. 
It  can  be  made  from  almost  any  fibrous  material  with  the 
exception  of  wool.  The  knowledge  of  this  fact  prompted 
members  of  the  general  public  to  advance  the  claims  of  divers 
and  wondrous  substances.  As  may  be  readily  imagined, 
the  majority  of  these  suggestions  erred  somewhat  upon  the 
side  of  the  fantastic  and  chimerical.  The  mere  fact  that 
paper  can  be  made  from  almost  anything  does  not  necessarily 
imply  that  it  is  commercially  practicable  to  exploit  even 
the  most  obvious  raw  materials  indiscriminately.  There 
is  a  wide  and  deep  gulf  between  the  laboratory,  the  cradle 
of  experiment,  and  the  factory,  the  home  of  application.  In 
the  first-named  the  factor  of  cost  of  production  does  not 
count  :    in   the  last-named  it  constitutes   the  crux  of   the 


TURNING  WASTES   INTO   PAPER  129 

issue.  Consequently  the  majority  of  the  recommendations 
submitted  by  the  uninitiated  suffered  from  the  disability 
of  being  perfectly  feasible  but  hopelessly  impracticable. 
Submission  of  a  suggestion  to  the  cold,  unrelenting, 
unsympathetic  manufacturing  analysis  and  subsequent 
translation  into  pounds,  shillings,  and  pence  offered  the 
incontestable  reply  to  the  inevitable  question  "  Will  it 
pay  ?  " 

One  article  of  domestic  origin,  the  spartina,  or  common 
couch  grass,  which  thrives  in  abundance  upon  many  stretches 
of  our  coastline,  notably  Hampshire,  was  responsible  for 
an  avalanche  of  letters  containing  inquiries  as  to  why  this 
material  was  not  being  turned  to  account.  Apparently 
every  individual  who  had  visited  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  Solent,  and  had  observed  the  density  of  this  growth, 
assailed  the  authorities  for  their  lethargy.  Esparto  grass 
was  imported  from  Spain  to  make  paper,  and  yet  here  we 
were  ignoring  a  readily  obtainable  indigenous  grass  similar 
in  every  respect  ! 

But  the  claims  of  spartina  had  been  promptly  investi- 
gated— to  be  found  wanting.  In  the  first  place,  when  a  new 
material  appears  to  be  promising  the  question  as  to  whether 
sufficiently  imposing  supplies  could  be  forthcoming  must 
be  considered  carefully.  The  paper-making  machines  are 
insatiable  and  avaricious,  devouring  raw  material  not  by 
the  ton  but  by  the  thousands  of  tons.  This  in  turn  gives 
rise  to  the  question  as  to  the  cost  of  securing  the  necessarily 
heavy  supplies.  One  enthusiast,  who  had  advanced  the 
claims  of  the  couch  grass,  was  interrogated  upon  the  subject 
because  he  had  evolved  a  means  of  gathering  the  spartina. 
When  he  was  asked  the  cost  of  his  process  he  blandly  replied 
that  he  could  do  it  for  £15 — $75 — per  ton.  He  received 
a  shock  when  he  was  told  that  there  was  another  material, 
forthcoming  in  far  greater  quantities,  and  far  more  suitable 
for  the  purpose,  which  could  be  obtained  and  delivered 
to  the  mill  for  £4  10s. — $22.50 — a  ton  !  I  may  remark 
that  spartina  grass  is  being  used  for  paper-making  where 
the  conditions  favour  its  cheap  collection  and  transport. 
Speaking  generally,  however,  with  prices  at  an  artificial  level, 
any  material  costing  more  than  £5 — $25 — per  ton  delivered 
at  the  mill — this  figure  is  inclusive  of  collecting,  transport, 
and  other  charges — stands  little  chance  of  favourable  con- 

9 


130  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

sideration.  Under  normal  trading  conditions  the  prospect 
will  be  even  less  attractive. 

The  acquisition  of  the  raw  material  represents  merely 
the  preliminary  phase  of  the  whole  issue.  To  reduce  it  to 
pulp  involves  the  consumption  of  coal — cheap  water-power 
is  rare  in  these  islands — and  so  the  probable  fuel  bill  requires 
to  be  sounded.  How  many  tons  of  coal  will  be  required 
to  produce  a  ton  of  pulp  ?  It  is  a  simple  question  and 
one  which  prompts  another,  closely  allied  thereto,  namely, 
"  How  many  tons  of  such-and-such  material  will  be  required 
to  furnish  a  ton  of  paper  ?  " 

This  is  the  rock  upon  which  many  buoyant  expectations 
have  been  completely  wrecked.  Still  confining  ourselves 
to  the  couch  grass,  and  considering  the  second  factor  first, 
we  find  that  it  has  rather  a  low  yield  efficiency,  this  being 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  27  per  cent.  In  other  words,  it 
will  require  nearly  four  tons  of  crude  grass  to  produce  one 
ton  of  paper.  When  ranged  beside  esparto  grass,  with  which 
it  seems  to  have  much  in  common,  and  which  therefore  is 
a  convenient  comparative  unit,  the  outlook  for  the  couch 
grass  is  completely  shattered,  because  the  efficiency  yield 
of  esparto  is  high,  43*5  per  cent.  Only  a  little  more  than 
two  tons  of  grass  are  necessary  to  produce  one  ton  of  paper. 

But  the  fuel  factor  is  far  more  destructive  to  the  claims 
of  the  waste  grass  growing  upon  the  seashore.  To  make 
one  ton  of  paper  from  esparto  grass,  under  the  most  favourable 
conditions,  requires  3  tons  of  coal.  In  actual  practice  it 
ranges  from  3' 5  to  4  tons.  But  with  spartina  grass  the  coal 
consumption  is  forced  up  to  5,  and  even  to  7,  tons  under  the 
unfavourable  conditions  prevailing  in  many  paper-mills. 
Accordingly,  it  will  be  seen  that  couch  grass  cannot  be 
construed  into  an  attractive  raw  material  for  paper.  I 
may  say  there  are  other  objections  to  its  use,  but  the  fore- 
going are  sufficient  to  bring  about  its  rejection  in  this  phase 
of  utility. 

Even  if  we  take  those  materials  which  are  accepted  as 
being  the  most  favourable  to  the  manufacture  of  paper  we 
gain  enlightenment.  One  ton  of  waste-paper  will  not  yield 
one  ton  of  new  paper  as  might  be  imagined.  The  loss  in 
re-manufacture  is  about  25  per  cent.,  so  that  from  the 
58,000  tons  which  enter  into  the  made  waste  of  the  country 
we  could  produce  about  44,000  tons  of  new  paper.     Cotton 


TURNING  WASTES   INTO  PAPER  131 

rags  have  a  high  yield  efficiency,  being  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  85  per  cent,  and  upon  this  basis  we  might  safely  expect 
a  yield  of  some  16,000  tons  of  paper  from  the  19,000  tons 
of  rags  committed  to  the  dust-bins  of  the  country. 

It  may  be  mentioned  that  in  the  search  for  indigenous 
materials  whence  paper  might  be  manufactured,  the  whole 
gamut  of  obvious  domestic  contributions  to  the  issue  have 
been  examined,  including  such  substances  as  sawdust, 
wood-shavings,  wood-slats,  grasses  of  which  there  are  over 
100  varieties,  mimosa  bark,  peat,  straw,  flax-wastes,  flax- 
shoves,  and  dried  potato  vine.  Of  this  wide  selection  only 
four  materials  hold  out  any  promise  of  extending  commercial 
possibilities.  These  include  sawdust,  wood-shavings,  wood- 
slats  and  straw,  with  potato  haulm  serving  as  an  excellent 
material  for  the  fabrication  of  a  coarse,  strong,  brown  packing 
paper.  Of  course,  it  must  be  explained  that  these  materials 
are  in  addition  to  those  generally  utilized  in  the  industry, 
such  as  rags,  sacking,  bagging  and  reeds,  to  mention  only 
a  few  substances. 

The  definite  end  sought  in  the  first  instance  was  not 
so  much  the  discovery  of  suitable  substances  to  supersede 
entirely  the  imported  mechanical  and  chemical  pulps,  as 
the  presentation  of  materials  which  might  be  considered 
effectively  as  useful  for  dilution  purposes.  By  this  is  meant 
the  production  of  a  pulp,  made  perhaps  from  some  familiar 
product,  which,  when  added  to  a  certain  proportion  of  the 
conventional  pulp,  would  yield  a  paper  comparable  with  that 
derived  from  the  last-named  exclusively.  Any  success 
recorded  in  connection  with  a  diluent  offers  the  means  to 
enable  a  specific  quantity  of  the  imported  raw  material 
to  be  induced  to  go  farther  than  would  be  the  case  otherwise, 
this  tendency  becoming  accentuated  as  dilution  is  increased. 

It  was  essentially  in  this  light  that  the  feasibility  of 
pressing  sawdust,  wood-slats,  and  other  wood  and  vegetable 
refuse  was  considered.  Of  course,  behind  all  these  develop- 
ments, experiments,  and  researches,  there  has  been  the 
lingering  hope  that  ways  and  means  might  ultimately 
be  found  of  enabling  us  to  dispense  with  outside  sources  of 
supply  in  their  entirety.  This  hope  still  prevails,  and,  if 
properly  fostered,  may  lead  to  realization.  But  to  consum- 
mate such  an  end  it  is  essential  to  employ  materials  capable 
of  yielding  a  pulp  as  closely  resembling  the  article  derived 


132  MILLIONS   FROM   WASTE 

from  the  tree  as  possible.  Patient  investigation  proved 
that  sawdust  offered  the  most  attractive  possibilities  in 
this  connection. 

While  doubt  has  been  expressed  concerning  the  adapt- 
ability of  sawdust  to  this  duty  there  are  the  experiences  of 
Canada  and  the  United  States  to  guide  us.  Indeed,  we 
need  not  go  out  of  these  islands  to  obtain  confirmatory 
evidence  of  its  applicability  to  paper-making.  Britain 
pioneered  the  utilization  of  sawdust  for  the  manufacture 
of  paper,  and,  by  a  strange  coincidence,  it  was  the  Napoleonic 
wars  which  compelled  us  to  resort  to  such  a  manifestation 
of  enterprise.  With  the  exit  of  Napoleon  from  the  world's 
political  stage  the  necessity  to  exploit  sawdust  in  this  connec- 
tion disappeared,  and  so  the  process  fell  into  disuse,  to  lie 
dormant  for  a  round  one  hundred  years.  Consequently  the 
use  of  sawdust  really  represents  but  a  revival  of  an  old 
practice. 

But,  so  far  as  these  islands  are  concerned,  and  under 
normal  conditions,  sawdust  can  scarcely  be  regarded  as  a 
paper-making  material.  The  quantity  available  from  our 
sawmills  is  too  meagre  to  enable  the  idea  to  be  practised 
extensively.  There  is  just  one  chance  of  placing  the  develop- 
ment upon  a  firm  footing.  We  are  big  consumers  of  timber, 
but  the  greater  part  of  our  requirements  in  this  field  are 
satisfied  by  importing  supplies  in  a  manufactured  condition. 
Attempts  are  being  made  to  restore  the  British  wood-working 
industry  by  importing  lumber  in  the  slabbed  condition,  that 
is  square  trimmed  logs  either  in  the  form  of  huge  rafts  or 
demountable  ships.  Should  this  development  mature  then 
our  sawmills  will  become  clogged  with  huge  accumulations 
of  wood-waste  in  the  form  of  the  sawdust,  the  exploitation 
of  which  will  be  keenly  appreciated. 

During  the  war,  however,  the  necessity  to  exploit  the 
forests  of  Britain  to  contribute  to  the  requirements  of  the 
army  and  mines  in  regard  to  wood  has  resulted  in  the  piling- 
up  of  huge  heaps  of  sawdust.  It  was  discovered  that  in 
Scotland  alone  this  residue  was  accumulating  at  the  rate 
of  60,000  tons  a  year,  through  the  activity  of  the  Canadian 
lumberjacks.  Conservative  estimates  place  the  annual  saw- 
dust yield  throughout  the  British  Isles  at  150,000  tons. 
Of  this  gigantic  contribution  only  from  5  to  10  per  cent, 
is  drawn  from  hard  woods.     The  balance,  90  to  95  per  cent., 


TURNING  WASTES   INTO   PAPER  133 

is  derived  from  the  soft  woods  and  so  furnishes  a  huge 
reservoir  of  potential  raw  material  for  paper-making. 

Coincident  with  the  accumulation  of  sawdust  are  the 
fabrication  of  huge  piles  of  wood-slats — the  trimmings 
from  the  logs.  These  also  represent  sheer  refuse,  the  only 
possible  disposal  being  in  the  form  of  fire  or  kindling  wood. 
At  one  lumber-camp  in  Scotland  there  was  found  a  pile, 
a  sprawling,  ragged  and  jagged  stack,  house-high,  covering 
20  acres,  and  containing,  at  a  modest  estimate,  from  300  to 
500  tons  of  wood-waste.  It  was  ideal  for  paper-making  as  in- 
vestigations proved,  but  was  then  merely  being  allowed  to  rot. 

The  process  of  preparing  sawdust  for  the  paper-maker 
is  very  simple  and  inexpensive.  It  may  be  described  as  an 
application  of  the  system  for  producing  mechanical  pulp, 
because,  in  the  main,  the  resultant  product  is  very  similar 
to  the  latter  in  its  essential  characteristics.  The  waste, 
being  the  product  of  the  buzz-saw,  is  coarse  in  texture. 
It  is  first  passed  over  a  riddle  of  wide  mesh,  which,  while 
allowing  the  dust  proper  to  fall  through  readily,  collects 
the  pieces  of  bark,  chips,  and  other  fragments  of  wood  which 
may  have  become  associated  with  the  dust.  This  residue 
is  thrown  to  one  side  for  conversion  by  a  different  method. 
The  sifted  sawdust  is  dumped  into  a  hopper  to  fall  by 
gravity  in  a  steady  stream  into  the  mill,  which  is  somewhat 
reminiscent  of  the  familiar  mortar-mill,  below.  As  it 
enters  the  latter  it  is  caught  up  by  the  revolving  grindstone 
and  crushed  against  the  stationary  stone,  the  result  being 
that  it  is  disintegrated  and  pulverized.  By  virtue  of  the 
centrifugal  action  set  up  the  dust,  as  it  is  whirled  round, 
naturally  works  from  the  centre  to  the  periphery  of  the 
wheels,  the  coarser  particles  or  tailings  being  flung  out,  while 
the  finely-divided  dust,  produced  by  the  grinding  action, 
falls  into  a  separate  receptacle. 

The  tailings  are  recovered  to  be  re-passed  through  the 
mill,  and,  in  time,  for  the  most  part  are  also  ground  to  the 
desired  degree  of  fineness.  A  certain  proportion  of  residue 
defies  reduction  in  this  manner,  but  it  is  not  discarded.  It 
is  retrieved  to  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  coarse  brown 
paper.  Two  methods  of  grinding,  even  in  the  vertical  mill, 
are  practised.  The  one  known  as  the  wet  process  involves  the 
addition  of  water  to  the  dust,  which  thus  becomes  hydrated, 
the   resultant   saw-pulp,    as   it   is   called,    being   somewhat 


134  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

similar  to  the  familiar  wet  mechanical  pulp.  The  alternative 
process  is  described  as  dry  grinding,  the  sap  in  the  wood 
constituting  the  only  moist  agent. 

It  may  be  mentioned  that,  in  the  very  earliest  attempts  to 
emulate  the  wasps'  paper-making  process,  the  experimenter 
ground  the  wood  to  dust  by  applying  the  log  to  the  face  of 
a  grindstone  which  was  revolving,  water  being  the  lubricant, 
the  practice  recalling  the  grinding  of  tools.  The  particles 
of  wood  fell,  with  the  water,  into  the  trough  beneath.  The 
surplus  water  was  drawn  off,  leaving  a  mashy  residue  or 
pulp — hence  the  name. 

In  grinding  the  sawdust  the  coarse  material  is  reduced 
to  a  fine  powdery  substance,  soft  and  silky  in  texture  when 
dry,  but  which  retains  the  essential  fibrous  characteristic, 
though  naturally  the  length  of  the  individual  fibre  is  extremely 
minute.  But  pulp  so  produced  possesses  one  advantage  for 
the  paper-maker — it  demands  no  preliminary  boiling.  It 
can  be  discharged  direct  into  the  beater,  as  the  machine 
which  prepares  the  raw  material  for  the  paper-making 
machine  is  called,  with  the  waste-paper,  sulphite  or  mechanical 
pulp,  or  a  mixture  of  both,  it  only  being  necessary  for  the 
agitation  of  the  contents  of  the  beater  to  be  conducted 
thoroughly  to  bring  about  the  perfect  blending  of  the 
ingredients. 

I  have  emphasized  the  circumstance  that  this  saw-pulp 
may  only  be  considered  as  a  diluent.  This  may  be  varied 
from  10  to  35  per  cent,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  paper 
desired.  The  issue  of  the  Times,  dated  June  15,  1918,  was 
printed  on  paper  containing  20  per  cent,  of  this  saw-pulp, 
but  I  have  seen  other  newspapers  the  paper  for  which  was 
prepared  from  pulp  diluted  to  the  extent  of  35  percent,  with 
the  saw-pulp.  With  the  accumulation  of  experience  in 
the  working  up  of  this  material  marked  improvements  are 
to  be  recorded  in  regard  to  quality  of  the  resultant  paper 
which  has  enabled  dilution  to  be  carried  to  an  enhanced 
degree  without  imperilling  the  factor  of  strength  which  the 
finished  product  must  possess  to  enable  it  to  be  passed 
through  the  newspaper  printing  machine  at  a  speed  of  500 
feet  per  minute  without  breaking.  Under  modern  conditions 
it  is  difficult  to  determine  whether  or  not  saw-pulp  has  been 
introduced  into  the  composition  of  the  paper,  which  testifies 
conclusively  to  the  perfection  of  production. 


TURNING  WASTES   INTO   PAPER  135 

This  economic  utilization  of  one  waste  from  the  sawmill 
is  of  decisive  financial  significance.  Cost  of  production  is 
extremely  low,  because  the  power  for  driving  the  grinding 
mill  may  be  obtained  by  firing  the  steam  boilers  either  with 
sawdust  itself,  the  consumption  thereof  being  small,  or  with 
the  refuse  resulting  from  the  preliminary  sifting  of  the  dust. 
Indeed,  the  process  holds  out  such  alluring  possibilities 
that  there  is  no  reason  why  every  sawmill  should  not  include 
a  grinding  mill  to  treat  the  residue  on  the  spot,  shipping  the 
saw-pulp  direct  to  the  mill,  thus  turning  what  is  now  an 
unmitigated  nuisance  and  a  source  of  danger  into  a  distinct 
commercial  asset.  It  is  estimated  that  a  grinding  mill 
requiring  25  h.p.  for  its  operation  could  turn  out  i|  tons 
of  saw-pulp  in  the  course  of  the  ordinary  8  hours'  working 
day  or  7  tons  a  week.  The  cost  of  such  a  plant  would  be 
about  £400 — $2,000 — and  the  price  obtainable  for  the 
product  should  be  sufficient  to  render  the  conversion  of  the 
waste  to  this  useful  purpose  attractive  after  paying  all 
outgoings.  At  the  time  the  practice  was  brought  into 
operation  the  cost  of  reducing  the  sawdust  to  saw-pulp  of 
the  desired  character  was  from  £5  to  £6 — $25  to  $30 — per 
ton.  It  is  estimated  that  the  saw-pulp  maker  would  be 
equitably  rewarded  with  £8 — $40 — per  ton  for  the  finished 
material  ready  for  transport  to  the  mill.  On  this  basis  a 
grinding  mill,  working  to  full  capacity  through  the  44  hours' 
working  week,  should  be  able  to  show  a  gross  profit  of  £21 
—  $105 — which  should  leave  an  adequate  margin  of  net 
profit  to  encourage  such  exploitation  of  the  waste.  The 
expansion  of  this  young  industry,  however,  depends  entirely 
upon  the  conditions  which  will  obtain  upon  the  restoration 
of  normal  trading.  It  is  a  moot  point  whether  the  Scandin- 
avian pulp-makers  will  ever  be  able  to  revert  to  pre-war 
quotations  for  their  product,  owing  to  the  increasing  costs 
of  production,  and  this  fact  should  render  the  outlook 
distinctly  promising  for  the  home  producers,  more  especially 
if  the  sawmill  trade  be  destined  to  undergo  a  decided  revival. 
Every  ton  of  saw-pulp  produced  from  the  waste  will  prove 
beneficial  to  the  nation,  for  the  simple  reason  that  it  will 
enable  us  to  reduce  our  purchases  from  foreign  sources  of 
pulp  by  a  corresponding  amount. 

While  saw-pulp  can  only  be  regarded  as  a  contribution 
to  the  paper-making  problem,  there  happens  to  be  another 


136  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

waste  product  suitable  for  this  purpose,  one  which  is  available 
in  much  larger  quantities,  and  the  supply  of  which  would 
seem  to  be  increasing  rather  then  decreasing.  I  refer  to 
straw.  Hitherto  we  have  sadly  neglected  the  many  possi- 
bilities offered  in  this  connection,  having  preferred  to  turn 
our  by-product  of  the  grain  fields  to  other  applications  and 
to  import  vast  quantities  of  strawboard  for  the  manufacture 
of  boxes,  containers,  and  what  not.  Other  countries  have 
been  more  industrious  and  enterprising  than  we,  but 
what  they  have  achieved  is  equally  feasible  in  these  islands. 
To  bring  home  the  magnitude  of  this  industry  it  is  only 
necessary  to  relate  that  our  annual  pre-war  imports  of  straw- 
board  from  Holland  reached  250,000  tons. 

There  is  no  reason  why  such  a  lamentable  state  of  affairs 
should  continue.  Straw  is  not  only  useful  for  the  production 
of  strawboard,  but  it  constitutes  an  excellent  material  for 
the  manufacture  of  paper.  Its  yield  efficiency,  while  lower 
than  that  of  esparto  grass,  being  only  33*3  per  cent.,  is 
sufficiently  high  to  render  its  exploitation  in  this  direction 
highly  promising,  especially  as  the  material  can  be  obtained 
in  huge  quantities. 

At  the  present  moment  our  supplies  of  straw  for  civilian 
needs  may  rule  low  and  prices  may  be  high.  But  this  is 
due  to  the  heavy  military  demands.  Once  the  latter  retire 
from  the  market  and  leave  the  article  to  take  care  of  itself, 
a  marked  drop  in  price  may  be  confidently  anticipated, 
particularly  if  our  new  agricultural  policy  be  maintained. 
So  long  as  it  pays  the  farmer  to  grow  corn  he  will  continue 
to  do  so,  and  the  more  acres  he  brings  under  this  indispensable 
commodity  the  greater  will  be  the  quantity  of  the  by-product 
thrown  upon  the  market.  It  is  anticipated  that,  when 
things  settle  down,  from  2,000,000  to  3,000,000  tons  of  straw 
in  excess  of  civilian  needs  will  be  available,  and  the  only 
possible  outlet  then  for  this  waste  from  our  grain-fields  will 
be  the  paper-mill.  The  utilization  of  the  straw  in  this 
direction  will  be  influenced  by  charges  for  fuel  and  labour, 
while,  of  course,  the  price  of  the  imported  pulp  will  affect 
any  decision  which  may  be  contemplated  in  regard  to  the 
exploitation  of  our  home  resources.  But  assuming  that 
the  Scandinavian  pulp  will  be  dearer  as  a  result  of  enhanced 
production  charges,  and  assuming  that  dumping  tactics 
just  to  hold  the  market  will  be  frustrated,  it  is  quite  possible 


TURNING   WASTES   INTO   PAPER  137 

that  we  shall  find  it  cheaper  to  depend  upon  our  own  exertions 
with  domestic  materials.  If  the  quantity  of  straw  which 
I  have  mentioned  should  become  available  and  be  absorbed 
for  this  purpose,  it  will  be  adequate  to  furnish  from  670,000 
to  1,000,000  tons  of  paper. 

The  straw,  borne  directly  from  the  land,  is  relatively 
cheap.  The  cost,  delivered  to  the  mill,  even  during  the  war 
was  only  about  £4  10s. — $22.50 — per  ton.  This  figure  is 
likely  to  fall.  It  produces  an  excellent  paper,  but  it  is 
essential  that  it  should  be  chopped  very  finely  preparatory 
to  treatment,  after  which  it  is  boiled  with  chemicals  and 
finally  bleached.  The  yield  efficiency  being  33*3  per  cent, 
it  follows  that  three  tons  of  straw  are  required  to  produce 
one  ton  of  paper. 

But  the  straw  is  not  only  required  for  the  production 
of  paper  ;  it  is  equally  necessary  for  the  manufacture  of 
strawboard.  Under  war  conditions  an  appreciable  quantity 
of  the  reclaimed  paper  was  being  repulped  to  furnish  card- 
board and  paper-board  for  packing  purposes  to  make  good  the 
shortage  prevailing  in  regard  to  the  Dutch  product.  But 
the  waste-paper  is  more  useful  for  paper-making.  Accordingly 
it  is  being  switched  over  to  this  duty.  It  was  merely  utilized 
otherwise  during  the  war  because  it  was  so  urgently  re- 
quired, the  national  consumption  running  into  approximately 
100,000  tons  annually.  Efforts  are  being  made  to  establish 
the  strawboard  industry  in  these  islands.  The  Dutch 
method  has  been  adopted,  and  there  are  hopes  that  the 
output  will  be  speedily  raised  to  50,000  tons  a  year.  While 
this  falls  far  short  of  the  actual  imports  it  represents  a  bold 
commencement  to  emancipate  us  from  the  necessity  to  pay 
tribute  to  the  foreigner  to  the  extent  of  nearly  £1,000,000 
—  $5,000,000 — per  year  for  an  article  which  we  might  just 
as  well  produce  at  home. 

Why  do  we  not  undertake  the  manufacture  of  wood-pulp 
in  this  country  ?  This  is  an  obvious  question.  But  so  far 
as  these  islands  are  concerned  the  absence  of  supplies  of 
raw  material  in  the  form  of  forests  has  been  responsible  for 
the  British  abandonment  of  this  range  of  activity.  Anterior 
to  the  outbreak  of  war  there  were  three  mills  in  this  country 
possessing  integral  facilities  for  pulping  wood  by  the  sulphite 
process,  but  it  was  unremunerative  owing  to  the  insufficient 
supplies  of  suitable  indigenous  timber.     Two  mills  permitted 


138  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

their  sulphite  plant  to  fall  into  disuse  and  in  course  of  time 
dismantled  them.  The  third  mill  maintained  operations, 
though  under  difficulties,  while  its  contribution  was  small 
in  comparison  with  that  of  Scandinavia,  its  capacity  being 
only  6,000  tons  a  year. 

The  enormous  accumulations  of  wood-slats  arising  from 
the  exploitation  of  our  forests  to  meet  military  requirements 
turned  native  thought  towards  the  resuscitation  of  the 
chemical  system  of  pulping.  A  scheme  was  promulgated 
for  the  erection  of  a  plant  in  Scotland  to  work  upon  the 
sulphate  process,  the  proposed  site  for  the  plant  happening 
to  be  in  close  proximity  to  one  of  the  largest  ephemeral 
logging  camps.  By  the  sulphate  system  the  wood  is  reduced 
to  a  pulp  by  boiling  in  a  solution  of  caustic  soda,  and  for  this 
reason  is  often  known  as  soda  pulp  to  distinguish  it  from 
the  sulphite  pulp.  It  requires  three  tons  of  wood  chips  to 
yield  one  ton  of  pulp,  which  incidentally  I  may  mention  is 
one  of  the  strongest  pulps  known  to  the  paper-making 
craft.  At  the  time  the  problem  was  discussed  this  pulp 
commanded  £40 — $200 — a  ton,  and  so  manufacture  was 
considered  to  offer  an  alluring  prospect  for  British  enterprise. 
The  only  defect  in  this  pulp  is  that  it  is  difficult  to  bleach, 
and  therefore  can  be  used  only  sparingly  in  the  production 
of  white  paper.  It  is  used  principally  in  the  manufacture 
of  strong  brown  papers,  such  as  "  thin  kraft,"  the  brown 
paper  used  for  fruit  and  other  bags,  or  for  packing-paper 
where  colour  is  of  minor  importance. 

Henceforth  "  kraft  "  will  be  in  heavy  demand  for  quite 
a  new  range  of  activity.  This  is  the  production  of  paper 
textiles  in  which  British  inventiveness  has  far  out-distanced 
the  German  achievements  in  this  field.  At  the  moment 
the  British  company  specializing  in  these  textiles  is  being 
called  upon  to  pay  £40 — $200 — per  ton  for  its  raw  material 
drawn  from  Scandinavia,  so  that  any  fall  in  price  which 
was  anticipated  as  a  result  of  the  cessation  of  hostilities, 
which  would  be  likely  to  undercut  British  production,  has 
failed  to  materialize  so  far.  It  may  also  be  mentioned  that 
British  enterprise  is  quite  ready  to  bring  over  illimitable 
quantities  of  soft  woods  from  the  forests  of  Eastern  Canada 
in  the  log  condition,  and  at  a  rate  which  is  far  cheaper  than 
that  which  has  hitherto  prevailed.  This  is  due  to  a  complete 
r<      >lution  which  has  been  wrought  in  the  water  movement 


TURNING   WASTES   INTO   PAPER  139 

of  lumber,  and  it  will  not  only  enable  the  requisite  material 
to  be  acquired  at  a  figure  severely  competitive,  but  allow 
much  of  the  waste  lumber  in  Canada,  at  present  being 
ignored,  to  be  submitted  to  commercial  service. 

But  the  exploitation  of  the  foregoing  materials  by  no 
means  exhausts  our  possibilities  in  this  field.  There  are 
other  substances,  of  a  refuse  character,  possessing  undoubted 
virtues  for  paper-making.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned 
potato  haulm.  There  is  every  indication  that  our  output 
of  the  potato  will  record  a  decided  increase  owing  to  the 
development  of  industrial  science  in  other  fields.  Conse- 
quently it  is  only  logical  to  expect  increased  accumulations 
of  the  bine.  At  the  present  moment  the  vegetation  in  question 
is  regarded  more  or  less  as  useless.  It  should  be  turned 
back  into  the  ground  to  assist  in  feeding  the  soil,  but  many 
farmers  are  disinclined  to  follow  such  a  practice  for  the 
reason  that  the  bine  is  apt  to  foul  the  plough,  and  thus  delay 
the  ground-breaking  task.  Its  fertilizer  content,  or  rather 
the  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  constituents,  are  generally 
reclaimed  by  burning  the  bine  and  turning  in  the  ash,  but 
this  process  is  to  be  deprecated  inasmuch  as  the  whole  of 
the  valuable  nitrogen  content  is  lost. 

The  haulm,  owing  to  the  nature  of  its  fibres,  is  held  to 
be  an  excellent  material  for  the  production  of  brown  paper 
where  strength  is  the  essential  requirement.  So  a  British 
inventor  devised  what  may  be  described  as  a  kind  of  decorti- 
cating machine  to  rend  the  tough  fibre  to  pieces  upon  the 
spot.  The  machine  is  simple,  free  from  liability  to  easy 
derangement,  and  ingenious.  It  is  suggested  that  it  should 
be  acquired  by  the  farmer  to  permit  the  treatment  of  this 
waste  as  recovered  during  the  lifting  season.  It  is  held  to 
make  especial  appeal  to  the  agriculturist  possessing  a  motor- 
tractor,  the  requisite  energy  being  drawn  therefrom  through 
belt  and  pulley.  It  is  estimated  that  the  manufacture  of 
the  machine,  upon  a  sufficiently  large  scale,  will  enable  it 
to  be  sold  at  about  £100 — $500.  The  shredded  stalk  or 
fibre  should  be  able  to  command  from  £4  10s.  to  £5  10s. 
— $22.50  to  $27.50 — per  ton  at  the  mill  and  should  appeal 
to  the  paper- maker  owing  to  its  high  yield  efficiency,  which 
is  in  the  neighbourhood  of  65  per  cent.  Of  course,  the 
suggestion  that  this  waste  should  be  recovered  for  the  pro- 
duction of  paper  is  one  that  can  only  be  entertained  by  the 


140  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

large  grower,  but  it  is  computed  that  at  least  1,000  machines 
would  be  necessary  to  cope  with  the  country's  annual  output 
of  this  refuse. 

Another  waste  product  which  has  also  been  subjected 
to  test,  and  found  promising,  is  the  husk  from  the  oat  which 
accrues  from  milling.  The  useless  offal  resulting  from 
grinding  this  grain  is  approximately  35  per  cent.  In  its 
general  characteristics  the  oat-husk  closely  resembles  saw- 
dust, while  its  preparation  for  paper-making  entails  a  broadly 
identical  process — passage  through  a  grinding  mill  to  reduce 
the  residue  to  the  desired  consistency.  Investigations 
proved  the  suitability  of  this  husk-pulp  as  an  ingredient 
for  making  certain  low-grade  papers,  such  as  are  used  by 
grocers,  and  for  the  very  cheapest  literature.  Paper  so 
made  is  composed  of  oat-husks,  35  per  cent. ;  waste-paper, 
50  per  cent.  ;  imported  pulp,  15  per  cent.  But  the  most 
gratifying  feature  of  such  paper  is  that  it  can  be  made  from 
domestic  raw  materials — waste — to  the  extent  of  85  per  cent. 

It  is  evident,  from  what  I  have  related,  that  the  paper 
situation  need  never  occasion  us  any  undue  alarm.  We 
have  abundant  materials  available  in  the  form  of  waste 
which  we  might  exploit  to  pur  material  and  financial  profit. 
War,  with  its  concomitant  evils,  has  turned  the  world  upside 
down.  What  we  could  not  exploit  previously  to  advantage, 
owing  to  severely  competitive  prices,  is  now  rendered  feasible. 
It  only  remains  for  us  to  submit  the  results  of  proved  experi- 
ments to  actual  commercial  practice. 


CHAPTER   IX 

SUPPLYING  INDUSTRIES  FROM  THE  DUST-BIN 

During  the  past  few  years  no  effort  has  been  spared  to 
improve  the  health  and  well-being  of  the  community.  Laws 
innumerable  have  been  passed  compelling  the  mitigation 
of  nuisances  and  the  removal  of  menaces  to  hygiene.  These 
efforts  are  laudable,  but,  while  thay  have  achieved  the 
desired  end,  they  have  been  directly  responsible  for  many 
other  shortcomings.  The  greatest  of  these  is  waste,  more 
especially  in  so  far  as  it  affects  the  household. 

Probably  no  other  factor  has  contributed  so  materially 
towards  the  factor  of  heavier  domestic  prodigality  than  the 
provision  of  the  portable  dust-bin,  and  the  introduction 
of  systematic  and  regular  collection  of  the  flotsam  and 
jetsam  contributed  thereto.  The  very  convenience  which 
the  dust-bin  or  ash-barrel  represents  has  served  to  accentuate 
household  extravagance.  "  Throw  it  in  the  dust-bin  !  "  is 
the  popular  slogan  in  domestic  circles.  Consequently  this 
receptacle  has  become  the  harbour  for  much  domestic  refuse 
which,  under  previous  conditions,  would  never  have  been 
so  summarily  discarded. 

This  disposition  to  be  wasteful  might  have  been  checked, 
or  at  least  the  errors  of  the  domestic  circle  might  have  been 
rectified  very  considerably,  but  for  one  disturbing  element. 
We  became  such  devout  worshippers  of  hygiene  as  to  become 
insensible  to  all  reasoning.  A  few  years  ago  the  practice 
was  to  discharge  the  contents  of  the  ash-barrel  upon  open 
waste  land.  A  small  army  of  workers,  even  the  nomadic 
element  of  the  community,  turned  to  and  raked  over  the 
spoil  from  our  homes  very  diligently.  In  this  way  immense 
quantities  of  odds  and  ends  in  infinite  variety  which  otherwise 
would  have  been  lost  found  a  market  as  raw  materials  for 

141 


142  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

many  industries.  Even  the  ultimate  organic  residue  fulfilled 
a  mission  of  utility  and  one  in  consonance  with  the  laws  of 
Nature,  because,  in  the  process  of  decomposition,  the  nitrogen 
and  phosphoric  acid  contents  of  the  dump  suffered  release 
to  feed  the  soil  to  raise  sustenance  for  man  and  beast. 

But  ransacking  the  garbage  heap  was  declared  to  be  a 
degrading  and  health-menacing  occupation  and  practice. 
Indeed,  the  whole  sj^stem  of  household  refuse  disposal  was 
held  up  to  obloquy.  Reform  was  achieved  by  the  energetic 
advocacy  of  another  means  wherewith  to  cope  with  such 
waste.  It  received  widespread  support  because  it  fully 
coincided  with  all  the  requirements  of  hygiene,  while, 
furthermore,  it  was  simple,  expeditious,  effective  and  appar- 
ently cheap. 

This  was  destruction  by  fire  along  so-called  scientific 
lines.  The  new  idea  arrested  public  fancy  mainly  for  the 
reason  that  its  champions  laid  emphasis  upon  the  fact  that  it 
presented  the  possibility  of  obtaining  energy  to  generate 
electric  light  and  power  and  to  drive  tramways  for  nothing. 
Municipalities  became  affected  with  the  incineration  fever. 
Steam  was  necessary  to  drive  the  electric  plant  which  had 
been  acquired.  Why  not  cut  down  the  coal-bill  by  making 
use  of  the  fuel  properties  possessed  by  household  refuse  ? 
The  contents  of  the  domestic  dust-bin  are  so  varied,  ranging 
from  waste-paper,  grease-laden  bones,  fragments  of  fat, 
cinders,  rags  and  vegetable  odds  and  ends  as  to  present, 
in  the  aggregate,  a  readily  combustible  mass  possessing 
distinct  calorific  value.  By  utilizing  the  garbage,  which 
has  to  be  collected,  in  this  manner,  the  coal-bill  might  be 
reduced  by  so  much. 

So  argued  the  advocates  of  the  new  idea,  and  their  reason- 
ings proved  so  specious  as  to  gain  the  day.  The  prospect 
of  being  able  to  get  "  Something  for  nothing  "  was  so  alluring 
as  to  silence  effectively  all  adverse  criticism.  Of  course, 
it  was  futile  to  gainsay  that  cremation  could  be  rivalled  as 
a  prompt,  simple,  and  completely  sanitary  means  of  coping 
with  the  refuse  which  accumulates  in  every  city  and  big  town. 
Forthwith  destruction  by  fire  became  the  widely-accepted 
means  of  getting  rid  of  the  unsightly  and  unsavoury  contents 
of  the  dust-bin. 

Yet  the  coming  of  the  dust-destructor  proved  to  be  a 
distinctly  retrograde  step  in  the  science  of  economics.     It 


THE   DUST-BIN  143 

contributed  to  increased  improvidence  in  the  home,  because 
the  ash-barrel  became  the  receptacle  for  a  still  wider  assort- 
ment of  organic  material  than  ever  before,  and  in  greater 
bulk. 

It  must  be  conceded  that  not  all  of  the  garbage  which 
suffered  this  fate  was  destroyed  to  futility.  A  certain 
volume  of  steam  was  certainly  raised  wherewith  to  drive 
the  electric  generators,  but  the  amount  of  energy  obtained  in 
this  way  was  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  quantity  and  value 
of  the  material  incinerated.  In  certain  cases  the  destructor 
was  not  harnessed  to  the  power  station.  The  ratepayers 
have  not  experienced  any  sensible  relief  in  regard  to  the  fuel 
bills.  Even  incineration  of  household  refuse,  despite  the 
proportion  of  its  combustible  contents,  cannot  be  conducted 
satisfactorily  without  the  consumption  of  a  certain  volume 
of  coal.  And  the  process  precipitates  a  certain  quantity 
of  further  refuse,  in  the  form  of  clinker  and  ash,  the  economic 
disposal  of  which  has  provoked  another  and  even  more 
perplexing  problem. 

When  necessity,  which  knows  no  law,  compelled  us  to 
economize  in  every  direction,  and  particularly  in  connection 
with  food,  we  found  it  expedient  to  turn  round  to  ascertain 
whether  or  not  we  might  be  able  to  effect  tangible  savings 
to  minimize  the  disconcerting  influences  of  stringency.  The 
domestic  dust-bin  was  the  first  factor  in  the  domestic  circle 
to  undergo  sensational  overhaul.  Material  which  had  hither- 
to been  consigned  to  this  dead  end  only  too  freely  and 
perfunctorily,  was  more  closely  scrutinized  to  see  if  it 
could  not  be  induced  to  yield  further  useful  service  before 
suffering  complete  abandonment  by  the  housewife.  Con- 
temporaneously with  this  manifestation  of  individual  private 
effort  the  civic  and  municipal  authorities  were  compelled 
to  display  unwonted  activity.  The  whole  problem  of  refuse 
disposal  had  to  be  viewed  from  quite  a  new  angle. 

Upon  investigating  the  issue  of  household  refuse  at  close 
quarters,  and  under  the  microscope  of  concentrated  interest, 
the  country's  wastage  in  this  direction  was  found  to  exceed 
the  wildest  speculations  of  the  critics.  For  the  first  time 
illuminating  statistics  became  available.  According  to  the 
National  Salvage  Council,  the  official  department  created 
to  stimulate  the  public  mind  in  matters  pertaining  to  this 
question,  the  quantity  of  refuse  "  made  "  by  householders 


144 


MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 


throughout  the  country  during  the  year  may  be  set  down 
at  9,450,000  tons. 

At  first  sight  this  figure  seems  so  startling  as  to  be 
received  with  incredulity,  but  analysis  suffices  to  demonstrate 
that  it  does  not  err  upon  the  side  of  exaggeration.  Rather 
is  it  conservative.  It  is  based  upon  an  allowance  of  1,680 
lb.  a  day  for  each  1,000  members  of  the  total  population 
during  300  days  of  the  year.  An  allowance  of  r68  lb.  per 
head  per  day  wastage  cannot  be  construed  as  excessive. 
How  many  households  of  six  persons  can  show  a  weekly  dust- 
bin collection  weighing  less  than  60  lb.  especially  when  the 
extremely  varied  contents  of  the  receptacle  are  born  in  mind  ? 

Now,  of  what  is  the  heterogeneous  collection  of  the 
dust-bin  composed,  and  what  is  the  proportion  of  each  to 
the  aggregate  ?  The  following  table,  based  upon  the  data 
collected  by  the  official  department  already  mentioned, 
shows — 


Material. 

Average 
Percentage. 

Total  per 
Year. 

Estimated  Value. 

Tons. 

£ 

s 

Fine  dust 

5098 

4,800,000 

240,000 

1,200,000 

Cinders 

39-63 

3,700,000 

1,850,000 

9,250,000 

Bricks,  pots,  shales,  etc. 

5*35 

500,000 

25,000 

125,000 

Tins 

098 

90,000 

360,000 

1,800,000 

Rags 

0*40 

37,000 

555-  °°° 

2,775,°°° 

Glass 

o*6i 

50,000 

100,000 

500,000 

Bones 

005 

4,000 

— 

— 

Vegetable  matter 

0*72 

68,000 

— 

— 

Scrap  iron 

006 

5,000 

15,000 

75,000 

Shells  (oyster,  etc.) 

0-08 

7,000 

— 

— 

Paper 

o"62 

58,000 

400,000 

2,000,000 

From  these  figures  it  is  evident  that  the  dust-bin  is  a 
veritable  treasure  ground.  Of  course  the  values  are  subject 
to  market  fluctuations,  but  it  is  apparent  that  a  round 
£3,000,000 — $15,000,000 — more  or  less,  a  year,  is  being 
allowed  to  fly  up  the  chimney  to  vanish  in  smoke  and  gases, 
and  to  extend  very  meagre  return  for  its  combustion. 

Let  us  consider  the  despised  homely  cinders  as  an  illustra- 
tion of  how  we  permit  wicked  waste  to  reign  in  the  household 
circle.     According  to  the  table  they  represent  approximately 


THE   DUST-BIN  145 

two-fifths  of  the  total  contents  of  the  dust-bin,  and  make 
up  the  respectable  aggregate  of  3,700,000  tons  a  year  for  the 
whole  country.  As  a  straight  fuel  the  cinder  is  but  slightly 
inferior  to  coal.  When  washed  its  calorific  value  is  about 
10,000  British  Thermal  Units.  Good  steam  coal  only  averages 
14,000  British  Thermal  Units.  Accordingly  the  spurned 
cinder,  from  the  heat-raising  point  of  view,  is  worth  about 
five-sevenths  of  coal  drawn  fresh  from  the  mines.  The 
householders  of  Britain  have  been  content  to  throw  away 
37,000,000,000  British  Thermal  Units  every  year  in  ignorance. 
Translated  into  terms  of  coal  this  is  equivalent  to  2,642,857 
tons.  In  other  words  we  have  wasted  what  is  tantamount 
to  two-and-a-half  millions  of  high-grade  coal  every  year, 
and  have  spent  money  on  fuel  which  we  might  just  as  well 
have  kept  in  our  pockets  or  have  turned  to  other  beneficial 
purposes.  Obviously,  if  every  house  undertook  to  turn  its 
cinders  to  full  account,  the  domestic  call  upon  the  mines  might 
be  materially  reduced,  while  there  would  be  an  appreciable 
contribution  to  the  conservation  of  our  coal  resources  from 
such  a  practice. 

Paper  is  another  commodity  which,  in  the  past,  we  have 
handled  along  woefully  improvident  lines,  as  related  in  the 
previous  chapter.  We  have  not  even  taken  the  trouble  to 
burn  it,  but  have  permitted  it  to  drift  and  flutter  hither 
and  thither  to  find  a  final  repository.,  grievously  soiled  and 
dirty,  in  the  dust-bin.  But  even  when  so  marred  and 
deteriorated  it  was  worth,  during  the  war  period,  no  less 
than  £7— $35— a  ton  ! 

The  wastage  of  rags,  both  cotton  and  woollen,  has  been 
even  more  deplorable.  In  this  instance,  however,  possibly 
a  reasonable  excuse  for  the  prompt  consignment  of  such 
material  to  the  dust-bin  and  the  dust-destructor  can  be  ad- 
vanced. Popular  opinion  regards  textile  odds  and  ends  as  an 
ideal  vehicle  for  the  transmission  of  the  germs  of  disease.  Yet 
such  does  not  justify  the  indiscriminate  committal  of  material 
worth  £15 — $75 — per  ton  to  incineration.  Infected  rags 
should  be  burned  forthwith  in  the  household  fire.  But  are 
they  ?  Investigation  would  probably  reveal  the  disconcerting 
fact  that  they  are  thrown  into  the  dust-bin,  as  offering  the 
most  convenient  means  of  disposal.  Even  if  they  should 
be  above  suspicion  when  discarded,  the  chances  are  that 
they  become  contaminated  in  the  ash-barrel.     Consequently 

10 


146  MILLIONS   FROM   WASTE 

upon  recovery  such  materials  should  be  subjected  to  prelimin- 
ary inexpensive  sterilization  to  ensure  the  public  safety. 

When  the  necessity  to  practise  household  salvage  upon 
a  comprehensive  scale  became  imperative,  a  few  discreet 
inquiries  were  made  to  secure  reliable  statistics  as  to  what 
wealth  is  ignored  or  thrown  away  by  the  community  [of 
these  islands.     The  results  were  somewhat  surprising. 

In  Sheffield,  a  city  of  some  500,000  persons,  56,000  jam- 
jars were  recovered  in  one  week  through  a  special  collection 
conducted  by  school  children.  They  realized  6  shillings 
— $1.50 — a  gross,  and  so  brought  in  £120 — $600.  In  Leicester 
the  practice  is,  or  was,  to  dispose  of  certain  articles  to  the 
local  marine  store  dealers  after  collection,  and  to  divide  the 
profit  arising  from  the  transaction  among  the  employees 
engaged  in  the  refuse-gathering  task.  One  quarter's  waste, 
exclusive  of  old  tins  and  waste-paper,  netted  £343 — $1,715 — 
of  which  £249 — $1,245 — was  obtained  from  rags  alone. 
There  were  264   dozen   jam-jars   collected.     They  cost  15s. 

—  $3-75 — a  gross  new,  and  the  trade  expressed  its  readi- 
ness to  take  over  the  reclaimed  vessels  at  7s.  6d. — $1.87 
— a  gross.  Kensington  made  £1,000 — $5,000 — from  the 
sale  of  one  year's  collection  of  waste-paper.  The  Southport 
authorities  recovered  £2,000 — $10,000 — over  a  similar 
transaction.  The  metropolitan  boroughs  of  Finsbury  and 
Marylebone  each  swelled  its  local  treasury  to  the  extent  of 
£500 — $2,500 — in  a  similar  manner.  The  City  of  London 
garners  30  tons  of  this  commodity  every  week.  The  ink- 
bottles  recovered  from  the  garbage  barrels  of  the  metropolis 
would  provide  a  person  with  a  comfortable  income,  averaging 
as   they  do   several  gross  a   day.     Liverpool   derives  £300 

—  $1,500 — from  house-swill  alone,  which  it  collects,  dries, 
and  turns  into  poultry-meal  to  sell  at  £15 — $75 — a  ton. 
Aberdeen,  as  the  result  of  one  day's  organized  collection, 
secured  sufficient  bottles  to  realize  £567 — $2,835. 

It  is  obvious  that,  no  matter  from  what  point  of  view 
the  question  is  regarded,  systematic  organized  salvage  of 
the  contents  of  the  household  dust-bin  can  be  rendered  a 
highly  profitable  enterprise.  Certainly  it  opens  up  a  promis- 
ingly rich  and  legitimate  field  for  municipal  trading,  though 
it  is  equally  accessible  to  private  initiative.  It  is  only 
requisite  to  survey  the  whole  situation  of  the  disposal  of 
house  garbage  from  the  new  angle  of  scientific  application. 


THE   DUST-BIN  147 

It  is  not  refuse  in  the  generally  accepted  interpretation  of 
the  term.  Such  material  should  rightly  be  regarded  as 
by-products  of  the  private  domestic  kitchen. 

The  tardy  recognition  of  this  fact  is  responsible  for  a 
curious  reversion  in  practice.  The  open-air  sifting  of  house 
refuse  for  the  recovery  of  substances  possessed  of  commercial 
value  was  unequivocably  condemned  from  health  motives, 
as  previously  mentioned.  Yet,  in  order  to  recover  these 
articles,  some  system  of  selection  and  hand  manipulation 
are  inevitable,  notwithstanding  the  high  degree  of  intellec- 
tuality to  which  machinery  has  been  advanced.  But  the 
old  system  of  hand-picking  was  primitive  in  its  simplicity. 
The  circumstance  that  household  refuse,  both  organic  and 
inorganic,  possesses  virtues  which  the  vogue  of  the  destructor 
caused  to  be  blindly  ignored,  has  been  responsible  for  a 
manifestation  of  marked  ingenuity  upon  the  part  of  the 
engineering  profession.  The  necessity  to  recover  every 
ounce  of  material  possessing  a  market  value  was  never  so 
acute  as  it  is  to-day.  Supplies  are  short  and  are  likely  to 
remain  inadequate  for  some  time  to  come,  while  the  high 
level  of  prices  is  apt  to  compel  more  rigid  economy.  Yet 
the  strains  encountered  in  this  direction  may  be  very  sensibly 
lessened  by  the  practice  of  salvage  along  more  intensive 
lines. 

It  would  seem  as  if  refuse  recovery  were  destined  to 
develop  into  a  highly  specialized  branch  of  the  engineering 
craft.  Hitherto  for  the  most  part  the  engineer  has  confined 
his  efforts  towards  garbage-disposal  by  destruction,  but  the 
new  tendency  is  far  more  logical  and  deserving  of  every 
encouragement.  Certainly  it  is  a  field  in  which  abundant 
scope  is  offered  for  brilliancy  and  ingenuity  of  thought. 
This  is  demonstrated  by  the  activity  of  certain  firms,  more 
particularly  of  one  in  the  North  of  England,  the  guiding 
hand  of  the  destinies  of  which  has  evolved  a  complete  recovery 
plant,  having  many  decidedly  ingenious  features,  and  which 
is  already  being  installed  by  certain  of  our  more  progressive 
corporations   and   municipal   authorities. 

This  plant  is  self-contained,  and,  so  far  as  is  feasible,  is 
automatically  operated.  While  hand-picking  cannot  be 
entirely  eliminated  it  has  been  reduced  to  the  minimum. 
The  system  adopted  facilitates  the  task,  and  renders  hand- 
picking  as  congenial  as  the  peculiar  conditions  will  permit. 


148  MILLIONS  FROM  WASTE 

Furthermore  it  is  an  individual  entity.  While  it  can  be 
established  in  an  isolated  centre  it  can  also  be  coupled  up  to 
the  existing  dust-destructor,  or  power-generating  station 
if  preferred,  thereby  complying  with  the  general  desire  to 
centralize  municipally-controlled  installations.  This  is  cer- 
tainly a  powerful  recommendation,  because  it  avoids  super- 
fluous transport  and  handling. 

Under  this  scheme  the  refuse-collecting  vehicles  discharge 
their  loads  into  a  receiving  hopper  from  which  the  material 
falls  by  gravitation  into  a  hexagonally-shaped  revolving 
riddle.  This  screen  or  reel  for  two-thirds  of  its  length  is 
perforated  to  allow  the  fine  ash  associated  with  the  waste 
to  escape  into  another  large  hopper  placed  immediately 
beneath.  The  ash  may  then  either  be  withdrawn  directly 
from  this  hopper  into  wagons  or  carts  for  removal,  or 
should  arrangements  be  made  for  its  combination  with 
other  ingredients  to  produce  a  fertilizing  agent,  it  may 
be  led  by  conveyor  from  the  hopper  to  the  compounding- 
room. 

For  the  remaining  third  of  its  length  the  hexagonal 
revolving  screen  is  perforated  with  a  coarser  mesh  to  permit 
the  cinders  to  escape  into  a  separate  hopper,  at  the  base  of 
which  is  a  worm  conveyor  which  receives  the  cinders  and 
bears  them  to  a  washer.  The  washing  operation  is  introduced 
to  allow  the  separation  of  the  light  or  combustible  fuel — 
cinders — from  the  heavier  clinker,  fragments  of  glass,  pottery, 
and  other  incombustible  substances.  At  the  same  time  all 
fine  dust  clogging  the  interstices  or  pores  of  the  cinders 
is  removed,  thereby  facilitating  the  subsequent  combustion 
of  the  cinder,  while,  of  course,  the  heat  produced  from  the 
cleansed  fuel  is  greater  than  that  derived  from  such  material 
loaded  with  incombustible  dust. 

After  being  washed  the  cinders  are  picked  up  by  a  scraper 
elevator.  If  it  be  intended  to  utilize  this  fuel  for  raising 
steam  in  the  adjacent  power  plant  it  can  be  carried  by 
conveyor  direct  to  the  boiler-room,  to  be  discharged  into 
the  bunkers  or  furnaces.  Should  it  be  decided  to  dispose 
of  the  cinders,  either  wholly  or  in  part,  to  the  general  public, 
they  may  be  taken  by  the  transporter  to  any  suitable  point 
to  be  stored  against  sale  in  bulk  or  in  bags. 

A  second  scraper  elevator  gathers  the  heavier  debris 
separated   from  the  combustible  fuel  in  the  washer,   and 


THE  DUST-BIN  149 

carries  it  to  a  pulverizer,  to  which  it  is  delivered  through 
a  chute.  If  the  fine  dust  associated  with  the  raw  refuse, 
and  which  fell  through  the  receiving  screen,  be  not  delivered 
from  its  hopper  into  vehicles  for  immediate  disposal,  it  may 
be  led  to  this  point  to  be  stored  in  the  pit  receiving  the 
material  from  the  pulverizer  with  which  it  may  be  mixed. 
Of  course,  the  dust  is  not  passed  through  the  grinding 
plant. 

The  elimination  of  the  dust  and  coarser  material  from  the 
crude  garbage  in  the  receiving  screen  leaves  an  appreciable 
quantity  of  organic  and  inorganic  matter,  comprising  such 
divers  substances  as  paper,  fragments  of  wood,  bottles, 
jars,  bones,  tins,  and  vegetable  material  to  be  handled. 
As  these  cannot  pass  through  the  perforations  in  the  sifting 
screen  they  are  delivered  on  to  a  broad  endless  conveyor- 
belt  travelling  between  two  platforms.  This  is  the  "  picking 
belt,"  from  the  fact  that  as  the  material  is  borne  along 
between  the  two  platforms  the  useful  material  is  removed 
by  the  hands  of  pickers,  to  be  cast  into  suitably  disposed 
bins.  In  this  manner  the  process  of  segregation  is  carried 
out  with  the  minimum  of  effort,  while  the  material  is  in 
movement,  and  under  the  most  congenial  conditions  the 
character  of  the  work  will  permit.  It  represents  the  only 
stage  at  which  recourse  to  manual  labour  is  required,  so  that 
it  will  be  seen  that  hand-selection  is  reduced  to  the  absolute 
minimum. 

The  waste-paper  is  not  touched  by  hand.  At  a  suitable 
point  a  specialy  designed  hood,  connected  to  an  exhauster, 
is  mounted  over  the  picking  belt.  When  this  is  set  in  motion 
the  induced  draught  is  sufficiently  powerful  to  suck  up  the 
paper,  and  to  bear  it  through  a  special  conduit  to  be  discharged 
into  a  convenient  receptacle,  whence  it  may  be  removed  to 
the  baling  press. 

This  plant,  known  as  the  Hoyle  refuse-recovery  installa- 
tion, after  its  inventor  and  designer,  Mr.  H.  P.  Hoyle,  is 
extremely  efficient.  Simplicity  is  the  outstanding  feature, 
while  its  operation  is  economical  and  requires  only  the 
minimum  of  labour.  So  far  as  power  is  concerned  a 
single  10  horse-power  electric  motor  suffices  for  all  opera- 
tions. The  capital  cost  has  also  been  kept  down,  the  price 
of  the  complete  plant  being  from  £1,500  to  £2,000 — 
$7,500  to    $10,000. 


150  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

At  this  figure  the  installation  of  the  system  should  prove 
distinctly  profitable,  more  especially  in  conjunction  with 
one  or  two  auxiliary  appliances  which  offer  the  means  to 
enhance  the  market  value  of  the  recovered  materials,  although 
they  are  not  essential.  For  instance,  an  appreciable  propor- 
tion of  the  tins  thrown  into  the  dust-bin  are  in  a  bright 
condition  and  free  from  rust.  Such  tins  can  be  made  to 
yield  so  much  crude  tin  plate  for  the  production  of  further 
tins,  instead  of  being  subjected  to  the  less  economic  process 
of  crushing,  baling,  and  detinning  or  transference  to  the 
furnaces  in  billet  form  to  be  melted  down. 

A  special  type  of  machine  has  been  evolved  whereby 
the  tops  and  bottoms  of  the  bright  recovered  tins  can  be 
cut  off.  The  resultant  cylinder  is  then  cut  through  on  either 
side  of  the  original  seam,  and  the  sheet  pressed  out  to  form 
a  flat  plate.  The  eliminated  joint,  of  course,  is  set  on  one  side 
to  be  treated  for  the  recovery  of  the  solder,  while  the  small 
pieces  of  tin  find  their  way  to  the  scrap-metal  bin.  The 
sheets  of  bright  tin  which  are  thus  recovered,  and  which 
are  quite  equal  to  new  tin-plate,  command  a  ready  sale, 
because  they  can  be  restamped  into  smaller  flat  tins  for 
packing  boot  polishes  and  similar  commodities  extensively 
retailed  in  this  form.  The  process  is  simple,  rapid,  and 
can  be  made  profitable. 

Rusted  tins  require  to  be  treated  in  a  different  manner. 
Some  corporations  merely  crush  them  flat  to  facilitate  and 
to  cheapen  transport,  selling  them  in  bulk  to  firms  who 
specialize  in  the  handling  of  such  product.  However,  it 
is  a  matter  for  investigation,  when  such  tins  are  recoverable 
from  the  garbage  in  appreciable  quantities,  as  to  whether 
it  would  not  prove  more  remunerative  to  the  local  authorities 
to  deal  with  the  tins  themselves.  A  furnace  is  required 
to  burn  off  the  tin-dirt  and  to  recover  the  solder.  The  tin 
itself,  representing  about  i  per  cent.,  is  lost,  although  there 
are  processes  in  operation  for  its  reclamation.  The  recep- 
tacles may  then  be  crushed  and  baled  into  billets  for  which 
an  hydraulic  press  is  necessary.  A  plant  capable  of  making 
a  bale  measuring  24x14x6  inches  is  well-adapted  to  this 
duty.  The  solder  is  in  demand,  while  the  plate  is  worth 
from  £3 — $15 — upwards  per  ton  as  scrap  metal.  At  this 
figure  the  local  authorities  would  undoubtedly  find  it  far  more 
profitable  to  incur  the  extra  expense   and  labour   involved 


THE   DUST-BIN  151 

to  prepare  the  billets  rather  than  to  dispose  of  the  tins  in 
their  crude  form.  When  the  quantity  is  heavy  direct  sale 
to  the  steel-works  is  possible  and  the  middleman's  profit 
diverted  to  the  benefit  of  the  ratepayers. 

Paper  should  also  be  baled  for  reasons  of  transport. 
Either  hand  or  power  appliances  may  be  used,  but  unless 
the  quantity  likely  to  be  handled  is  pronounced,  the  hand- 
operated  machine  will  be  found  adequate  for  the  task.  Of 
course,  it  must  be  admitted  that,  to-day,  prices  for  the 
recovered  materials  rule  somewhat  high.  Consequently 
it  may  be  averred  by  critics  that,  whereas  such  auxiliaries 
might  be  perfectly  justifiable  under  conditions  such  as  now 
prevail,  they  would  fail  to  show  an  equally  satisfactory 
result  in  normal  circumstances. 

But  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  prices  are  steadily 
rising  all  round.  Accepted  raw  materials  are  costing  more, 
labour  is  more  expensive,  and  the  tendency  in  both  directions 
is  still  in  the  ascendant.  But  even  should  prices  and  costs 
droop,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  such  a  movement  would 
be  attended  by  the  utilization  of  greater  quantities  of  the 
articles  concerned.  They  would  be  recoverable  from  the 
garbage  in  greater  volume,  and  then  it  would  be  possible 
to  keep  the  plants  running  to  their  full  capacities  for  no 
heavier  operative  or  overhead  costs.  Consequently,  in  the 
long  run  the  disposal  of  enhanced  quantities  of  tins,  either 
as  "  bright  "  or  scrap,  at  a  lower  figure,  would  probably 
prove  more  profitable  in  the  aggregate  than  treating  a 
limited  supply,  such  as  obtains  under  stringent  economic 
conditions,  at  a  high  figure. 

How  does  a  recovery  plant  of  the  foregoing  description 
work  out  in  practice  ?  This  is  the  vital  question.  Upon 
this  point  it  is  possible  to  advance  some  interesting  figures. 
An  investigation  of  the  domestic  refuse  problem  as  it  affects 
the  country  as  a  whole  has  revealed  the  circumstance  of 
the  contents  of  the  dust-bin  being  tolerably  consistent, 
whether  it  be  drawn  from  a  residential  or  manufacturing 
town,  from  the  East-end  or  from  the  West-end,  from  the 
city  or  from  the  suburb.  On  the  basis  of  the  analysis  set 
forth  elsewhere  in  this  chapter,  and  taking  for  our  illustration 
a  metropolitan  suburb  having  a  population  of  85,000  souls 
contributing  100  tons  of  refuse  a  day,  the  possible  recovery 
of  by-products  comes  out  as  follows  : — 


152 


MILLIONS  FROM  WASTE 


Material. 

Tons  per 
Day. 

Price  per 

1 
Ton. 

Total  Value. 

Fertilizer  prepared  from 

I     *.  d. 

! 

£ 

s.    d. 

s 

fine    dust    and    pul- 

verized   debris    from 

! 

washer   and    picking 

! 

belt 

65 

OIO 

0.25  ; 

5 

5  0 

16.25 

Cinders 

25 

O    IO   O 

2-5o  | 

12 

IO    O 

62.50 

Tins  and  metal 

2 

4      OO 

20.00  1 

8 

O    O 

40.00 

Paper   (unsorted,  dirty) 

I 

700 

35.oo 

7 

O   O 

35-oo 

Rags 

o'5 

15       O   O 

75-oo  | 

7 

IO  0 

37.50 

Glass 

0-5 

2       OO 

10.00  j 

1 

1 

0  0 

5.00 

Gross  total  per  day 


£39     5  o    $106.25 


The  foregoing  figures  may  be  accepted  as  moderate. 
Thus  the  cinders,  with  a  heating  value  equal  to  five-sevenths 
of  that  of  good  steam  coal,  are  priced  at  10s. — $2.50 — per 
ton.  But,  as  experience  has  proved,  they  readily  com- 
mand 14s. —  $3.50 — per  ton,  providing,  in  their  washed 
condition,  a  first-class,  clean,  cheap  and  economical  fuel  for 
the  poorer  classes  of  the  community.  At  10s. — $2.50 — per 
ton  they  are  equal  to  coal  costing  14s. — $3.50 — per  ton, 
at  which  price  such  fuel  is  absolutely  impossible  to-day. 
Even  coke  cannot  be  purchased  at  double  the  figure.  In 
other  words,  by  buying  washed  cinders  at  the  prices  quoted 
the  purchaser  is  receiving  a  fuel  equal,  if  not  superior,  to 
contemporary  household  coal  costing  35s.  to  50s. — $7  to 
$10 — per  ton. 

Again,  the  tins  are  assessed  at  a  low  scrap-metal  value. 
Probably  50  per  cent,  of  the  tins  rescued  from  the  dust-bin 
to-day  coincide  with  the  term  "  bright,"  and  thus  would 
pay  to  turn  into  tin-plate.  The  quotation  for  this  material 
ignores  the  value  of  the  solder,  as  well  as  that  ruling  for  other 
metals,  such  as  brass  and  copper,  and  of  which  far  more  is 
recovered  from  the  ash-barrel  than  may  be  popularly  imagined. 
The  figure  given,  moreover,  represents  the  official  price, 
but  since  the  removal  of  control  scrap-metal  has  recorded 
higher  quotations.  So  far  as  the  other  materials  are  con- 
cerned the  prices  may  be  taken  as  representative. 

On   the   above   showing   of   £39  5s. — $196.25 — per   day 


THE  DUST-BIN  153 

the  plant  gives  a  gross  return,  in  round  figures,  of  £235 
—  $1,175 — for  a  six-day  week,  or  £11,775 — $58,875— for  a 
300-day  year.  Allowing  £5,000 — $25,000 — a  liberal  figure — 
for  the  annual  operation  of  the  plant,  the  sum  of  £6,775 — 
$33>875 — remains — the  net  return  from  the  realization  of 
some  of  the  utilitarian  material  recovered  from  the  dust-bins 
into  which  85,000  people  throw  what  they  consider  to  be 
useless  during  the  course  of  the  year.  Truly  may  it  be  said 
that  the  average  member  of  the  public  has  but  little,  if  any, 
idea  of  the  wealth  he  allows  to  slip  through  his  hands  as  a 
result  of  carelessness  or  lack  of  knowledge.  Again,  when 
it  is  reflected  that,  for  the  most  part,  the  whole  of  such 
potential  wealth  as  this  has  been  permitted  to  vanish  in 
smoke,  or  if  incombustible  to  be  kicked  from  pillar  to  post, 
we  certainly  cannot  complain  when  accused  of  deplorable 
extravagance. 

So  far  as  the  capital  expenditure  of  a  plant,  such  as  is  set 
forth  above,  is  concerned,  this  may  be  set  down  at  £1,000  to 
£1,500 — $5,000  to  $7,500.  If  for  such  a  paltry  expenditure 
a  net  revenue  of  £6,775 — $33,875 — can  be  secured  during 
the  course  of  the  year,  surely  the  moment  has  arrived  when 
we  ought  to  put  our  civic  and  municipal  houses  in  order. 
Granting  that  prices  to-day  are  abnormal,  and  reducing 
the  net  return  by  50  per  cent.,  even  at  £3,387 — $16,935 — 
per  annum,  which  may  be  taken  as  a  safe  assumption,  a 
plant  of  this  description  is  able  to  pay  its  way  within  a  short 
time  after  its  installation,  after  making  even  the  most  liberal 
allowances  for  capital  charges,   interest,   and  depreciation. 

The  Hoyle  system  is  one  which  should  make  a  powerful 
appeal  to  the  small  communities,  which,  at  the  moment,  are 
deficient  in  any  system  of  garbage  disposal  other  than  open 
dumping.  It  has  the  governing  virtue  of  being  extremely 
flexible,  being  as  readily  applicable  to  the  small  town, 
numbering  only  a  few  thousand — even  hundreds — of  in- 
habitants as  to  the  teeming  city  of  a  million  or  more  souls. 
The  financial  outlay  involved  is  comparatively  trivial  for 
the  results  achieved,  and  varies  according  to  the  size, 
capacity,  and  completeness  of  the  plant. 

Should  our  smaller  towns  embrace  the  system  the  con- 
tributions to  the  searching  problems  of  the  moment  would, 
in  the  aggregate,  be  decidedly  startling.  The  materials 
thus  recovered,  turned  into  the  proper  channels,  would  go 


154  MILLIONS  FROM  WASTE 

a  long  way  towards  relieving  the  strains  which  are  being 
experienced.  The  small  town  has  a  golden  opportunity  to 
demonstrate  to  the  larger  communities  how  things  should 
be  done.  For  the  most  part  it  is  not  saddled  with  a  costly, 
so-called  hygienic,  destructor.  The  science  of  turning  the 
contents  of  the  dust-bin  to  commercial  advantage  is  one 
offering  possibilities  too  numerous  to  mention  and  might 
even  lead  to  the  establishment  of  local  industries.  Nothing 
organic  or  inorganic  possessed  of  any  utilitarian  value  need 
be  lost. 

On  the  other  hand  the  city  is  not  in  such  a  fortunate 
position.  It  will  have  to  forget  a  good  deal  of  what  it  has 
assimilated  in  connection  with  the  disposal  of  the  contents  of 
the  ash-barrel.  A  change-over  from  the  old  to  the  new 
method  must  inevitably  occupy  time,  especially  as  those 
two  dragging  chains  which  always  retard  the  march  of 
progress — prejudice  and  conservatism — have  first  to  be 
released.  Nevertheless,  as  destruction  of  domestic  waste 
by  fire  superseded  dumping  upon  open  land,  so  must  incinera- 
tion, in  turn,  give  way  to  the  latest  demands  of  science  and 
the  immutable  economic  law.  The  dust  destructor  never 
could  possibly  be  construed  into  a  scientific  solution  of  the 
problem  :  it  has  no  constructional  or  creative  value,  except 
of  a  nuisance  in  the  form  of  accumulations  of  clinker.  Even 
primitive  dumping  upon  the  land  did  possess  the  distinct 
advantage  of  benefiting  the  soil  over  which  it  was  distributed. 
When  the  latest  idea  for  recovering  and  exploiting  the  by- 
products of  the  dust-bin  achieves  the  vogue  which  it  deserves, 
land  and  industry  will  profit  to  the  benefit  of  the  community 
and  of  the  country. 

Naturally,  certain  local  authorities,  notoriously  opposed 
to  progressive  development,  will  seek  to  stop  the  tide  by 
belittling  the  new  policy.  They  have  become  so  firmly 
wedded  to  the  destructor  in  which  so  much  of  the  ratepayers' 
money  has  been  sunk  as  to  be  blind  to  improvement.  The}' 
will  continue  still  to  waste  money  in  supporting  their  fetish, 
strenuously  declining  to  honour  the  axiom  that  it  is  often 
cheaper  to  cut  the  loss. 

In  the  absence  of  willingness  to  jettison  the  old  and  to 
adopt  the  new,  the  pressure  of  compulsion  should  be  applied. 
Local  authorities  must  be  prevented  from  continuing  to 
squander  potential  resources  of  raw  material.     Alternatively, 


THE   DUST-BIN  155 

the  exploitation  of  the  despised  dust-bin  should  be  brought 
within  the  reach  of  private  enterprise,  which  should  be 
extended  every  encouragement.  Other  nations  have  always 
regarded  our  much-vaunted  dust  destructor  as  the  high- 
road to  waste.  It  has  never  found  any  pronounced  favour 
beyond  the  confines  of  Britain.  Have  our  rivals  been  wiser 
than  we  ? 

An  interesting  commentary  upon  this  somewhat  inexplic- 
able predisposition  to  destruction  by  fire  is  offered  by  the 
experience  of  the  city  of  San  Francisco.  In  1896  the  city 
granted  a  fifty  years'  franchise  for  the  provision  of  a 
destructor  for  the  disposal  of  household  refuse  to  a  private 
party.  "  This  destructor,"  remarks  the  city  engineer  in  a 
communication  to  myself,  "  is  the  second,  and  last,  example 
of  the  Thackery  furnace  and  arrangement,  the  first  having 
been      built      in     Montreal,    Canada,    the     previous    year 

(1895)." 

This  plant  has  passed  through  somewhat  strange  vicis- 
situdes. In  1910  it  was  purchased,  together  with  the  franchise, 
by  the  city  authorities  for  £70,000 — $350,000.  It  was  then 
leased  to  a  private  party,  under  privilege,  in  return  for  an 
annual  payment  of  £3,700 — $18,500 — 5  per  cent,  upon 
the  purchase  price.  During  the  early  months  of  1918, 
owing  to  the  great  increase  in  wages  and  other  costs  of  opera- 
tion, the  lessee  relinquished  his  lease,  so  that  it  was  thrown 
back  upon  the  hands  of  the  city  authorities.  It  was  then 
taken  in  hand  by  the  Scavengers'  Association  under  permit 
from  the  city,  by  whom  it  is  at  present  being  run  at  a  cost  of 
about  4s. — $1 — a  ton  for  the  375  to  380  tons  of  refuse 
collected  daily  by  the  scavengers. 

But  the  city  authorities  are  not  impressed  with  this 
method  of  disposing  of  the  contents  of  the  ash-barrels  of 
its  citizens.  "  During  the  past  year  or  two,"  continues  the 
city  engineer  in  the  communication  already  quoted,  "  we 
have  become  more  than  ever  impressed  with  the  wrong  of 
unnecessary  waste  and  have  been  making  special  study  of 
our  conditions  and  the  means  of  improving  them.  Ordinances 
for  segregation  at  the  source,  and  collection  of  all,  both  garbage 
and  rubbish,  are  now  under  action  by  the  Board  of  Super- 
visors— the  governing  body  of  the  city — and  specifications 
are  being  prepared  and  bids  asked  upon  the  same  for  the 
collection  and  disposal  of  garbage  and  rubbish. 


156  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

"  It  is  specially  provided  that  all  proposals  shall  be  based 
on  a  recognition  of  the  need  of  conservation  and  the  recovery 
of  all  values  to  the  point  of  balance  between  profit  and  loss. 
It  is  expected  that  the  garbage  from  households  will  amount 
to  upwards  of  ioo  tons  daily,  and  that  it  will  be  attractive 
to  hog-raisers." 


CHAPTER  X 

LIVING    ON    WASTE 

War  is  Hell.  So  said  Sherman,  and  it  is  a  verdict  with  which 
the  whole  world  will  agree.  But  war  is  also  a  powerful 
educating  force.  If  any  convincing  testimony  upon  this 
point  were  required  we  have  only  to  reflect  upon  the  effective 
manner  in  which  the  recent  European  conflagration  caused 
the  British  nation  to  revise  its  methods  and  practices.  The 
stress  of  war,  ravages  by  submarines,  depletion  of  transport 
facilities  by  sea,  road,  and  rail,  and  the  shortage  of  crops 
and  labour,  compelled  the  community  to  consider  the  food 
question  in  a  light  totally  different  from  that  with  which  it 
was  regarded  during  the  days  of  cheapness  and  plenty.  We 
were  forced  to  digest  lessons  which  under  normal  conditions 
we  would  have  ignored  in  contempt.  Whether  the  changes 
wrought  in  our  complex  social  and  commercial  life  are  destined 
to  be  permanent  in  character  is  another  question,  but  the 
continuation  of  high  prices  is  tending  to  consummate  this 
end,  the  process  being  assisted  by  the  reflection  that  the 
good  old  days  are  destined  never  to  return,  at  least  not  for 
many  years  to  come. 

In  the  previous  chapter  1  have  recounted  how  the 
engineer  is  now  striving  to  conserve  rather  than  to  destroy 
what  we  throw  to  one  side  as  of  no  further  use.  By  inventive 
ingenuity  he  is  endeavouring  to  bring  home  to  our  local 
authorities  how  to  extract  further  utilitarian  value  from 
what  the  household  discards.  The  question  immediately 
arises  as  to  what  extent  this  tendency  towards  preservation 
and  construction,  as  opposed  to  destruction  and  loss,  is  being 
supported  in  a  practical  manner  by  the  authorities  concerned. 

It  is  to  be  feared  that,  considered  on  the  whole,  the  seeds 
which  are  being  sown  are  falling  on  barren  ground.     How- 

157 


158  MILLIONS  FROM  WASTE 

ever,  here  and  there  our  civic  and  municipal  authorities, 
especially  those  who  evince  a  distinct  pride  in  being  numbered 
among  the  pioneers  of  progress,  are  fully  alive  to  the  possi- 
bilities of  the  problem,  and  are  leaving  no  stone  unturned, 
nor  sparing  any  exertion,  to  bring  home  to  the  public  at 
large  that  refuse  is  merely  matter  in  the  wrong  place.  In 
some  instances  this  reversion  to  rigid  economical  methods 
is  not  of  modern  record,  the  practice  of  salvage  or  recovery 
of  abandoned  products  having  been  practised  along  more 
or  less  comprehensive  lines,  as  indicated  by  scientific  thought, 
for  many  years  past. 

The  city  of  Glasgow  is  able  to  point  to  a  convincing  record 
of  what  can  be  achieved  in  this  direction.  In  the  years 
1908-9  the  fathers  of  the  progressive  Scottish  city  derived 
£41,000 — $205,000 — from  this  source,  while  during  the  ten 
years  ending  1918  what  is  commonly  regarded  as  rubbish 
and  useless  has  been  induced  to  yield  no  less  than  £50,300 
—  $251,500.  Surely  what  can  be  achieved  in  one  city  is 
equally  possible  of  attainment  in  every  other  community 
throughout  the  British  Isles  to  a  greater  or  lesser  degree  ! 

Glasgow  has  evolved  its  own  organization  for  retrieving 
and  utilising  the  city  refuse  and  in  accordance  with  the 
conditions  which  obtain  in  the  locality.  Speaking  generally, 
the  system  may  be  described  as  one  of  separating  the  saleable 
from  the  unsaleable.  Previous  to  the  year  1917  efforts 
were  devoted  mainly  to  the  preparation  of  fertiliser  from 
the  contents  of  the  domestic  dust-bin,  as  well  as  the  recovery 
of  tins,  but,  owing  to  the  high  prices  which  other  so-called 
waste  was  commanding,  and  in  deference  to  the  national 
appeal  towards  greater  economy,  the  reclamation  of  other 
materials  was  taken  in  hand  with  highly  gratifying  results. 

The  refuse  of  the  city  is  collected  in  the  usual  manner 
and  conveyed  to  the  depot.  It  is  weighed  upon  receipt. 
It  is  then  dispatched  up  an  inclined  roadway  to  a  tipping 
floor,  where  the  vehicles  discharge  their  loads  through  shoots. 
Beneath  the  latter  are  disposed  horizontal  revolving  riddles 
of  conical  form.  The  fine  refuse  and  cinders  escape  through 
the  grids,  but  the  bulky  material  is  carried  forward  to  be 
ejected  on  to  a  travelling  conveyor. 

The  ashes  and  cinders  which  fall  through  the  open  mesh 
of  the  first  riddles  are  caught  by  a  second  and  stationary 
screen.     The  mesh  of  this  sieve  being  finer  only  allows  the 


LIVING   ON  WASTE  159 

dust  to  escape  to  fall  into  a  mixing  machine.  Here  it  is 
combined  with  a  regulated  quantity  of  excrementitious 
matter  drawn  from  an  overhead  tank.  The  materials  are 
thoroughly  blended,  and  the  mixture  ultimately  falls  direct 
into  railway  wagons.  In  this  way  all  intermediate  handling 
is  obviated.  This  material  constitutes  a  first-class  fertilizing 
agent,  is  keenly  sought  by  farmers,  and  accordingly  meets 
with  a  ready  sale. 

The  cinders,  arrested  by  the  secondary  stationary  screen, 
are  collected  in  a  similar  manner.  They  are  not  sold,  but 
dumped  into  the  bunkers  of  the  works  to  fire  the  boilers, 
thereby  assisting  materially  in  the  generation  of  the  power 
necessary  to  drive  the  plant. 

The  bulkier  material  remaining  in  the  revolving  conical 
grid  is  discharged  on  to  a  conveyor.  While  being  moved 
forward  all  material  of  value,  such  as  waste-paper,  tins, 
scrap-metal,  waste-food,  rags,  bones,  glass  and  so  on  are 
picked  off  by  hand  to  be  thrown  into  bins.  The  manual 
labour  employed  to  carry  out  this  task  of  segregation  may 
be  considered  to  be  an  adverse  cost  factor.  But  against  this 
expenditure  for  separation  by  hand  must  be  set  that  formerly 
entailed  in  the  destruction  or  other  disposal  of  this  material. 
Accordingly,  all  things  considered,  it  may  be  accepted  that 
the  revenue  derived  from  this  source  virtually  represents 
money  saved. 

In  addition  to  the  recovery  of  paper  from  the  above- 
mentioned  refuse  the  Cleansing  Department  also  maintains 
a  special  service  for  the  collection  of  such  waste  from  offices, 
warehouses,  and  private  residences  throughout  the  city  area. 
This  procedure  has  been  in  operation  for  many  years,  but, 
owing  to  the  scarcity  of  paper  encountered  during  the  war, 
and  the  need  which  consequently  arose  to  display  accentuated 
enterprise  in  this  direction,  an  auxiliary  collecting  service 
was  inaugurated.  It  was  conducted  by  the  members  of  the 
Women's  Volunteer  Reserve,  who  received  a  percentage  of 
the  profits  arising  from  the  sale  of  the  waste-paper  thus 
gathered. 

So  far  as  the  waste-metal — light  scrap,  tins,  and  other 
odds  and  ends  of  a  metallic  nature — is  concerned  this  was 
formerly  sold  in  the  form  of  detinned  compressed  billets. 
Under  the  present  contract  this  is  delivered  to  the  contractor 
in  the  condition  in  which  it  is  received.     But  it  is  quite 


160 


MILLIONS  FROM  WASTE 


possible  that,  at  some  future  date,  there  may  be  a  reversion 
to  the  baling  process  which  formerly  obtained.  In  view 
of  this  fact  it  has  been  deemed  advisable  to  bale  a  certain 
proportion  of  the  recovered  metal  merely  in  order  to  maintain 
the  hydraulic  compressing  plant  in  good  working  conditions. 
The  practice  is  to  separate  and  to  classify  metallic  material 
under  one  or  other  of  six  headings — bright  tins,  galvanized 
metal,  light  iron  (black),  cast  iron,  enamelled  ware,  and 
burned  tins  respectively. 

While  the  Cleansing  Department  hitherto  has  not  devoted 
any  attention  to  the  recovery  of  garbage  from  the  refuse  for 
conversion  into  pig-food,  it  is  possible  that  this  issue  may  be 
undertaken  at  a  future  date.  The  authorities  have  the 
suggestion  under  serious  consideration  with  a  view  to  its 
adoption. 

The  clinker  question  commands  the  attention  of  the 
Glasgow  authorities,  as  it  does  all  other  communities  equipped 
with  facilities  for  carrying  out  refuse  destruction  by  incinera- 
tion. But,  so  far  as  this  city  is  concerned,  the  problem 
does  not  bristle  with  perplexity  as  is  invariably  the  case. 
The  residuum  from  the  furnaces  of  the  Corporation  works 
is  mechanically  screened  into  five  varying  grades,  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  contractors  who  find  it  eminently  adapted 
to  their  particular  needs.  No  difficulty  has  yet  been  experi- 
enced in  regard  to  the  disposal  of  this  article,  a  ready  sale 
always  having  prevailed  for  the  stocks  available. 

That  the  reclamation  of  the  utilitarian  contents  of  the 
domestic  dust-bin  is  distinctly  remunerative  to  the  Glasgow 
civic  authorities  is  reflected  from  a  perusal  of  the  revenue 
derived  from  the  recovery  and  disposal  of  the  city's  refuse 
during  the  year  ended  May  31,  1918.  The  sales'  record 
is  as  follows  : — 


Materials. 

£          ■■     d. 

$ 

Waste-paper 

Old  tins,  light  iron,  etc. 

Clinker 

Sundries 

8.993   M     5 

2,684   17     9 

718  10  10 

T-  M     5 

44.969 

13.4-25 

3,59-2 

Total        

£12,409  17     5 

$62,349 

LIVING   ON  WASTE  161 

To  the  above  total  there  remains  to  be  added  the  revenue 
derived  from  the  sale  of  the  prepared  manure,  arising  from 
the  admixture  of  the  finely-screened  dust  and  excremental 
material.  This  realized  £6,718  17s.  8d. — $33,594 — bringing 
the  grand  total  to  £19,188  15s.  id. — $95,943.  In  this  return 
the  cinders  are  totally  ignored,  but,  seeing  that  they  con- 
stitute a  highly  serviceable  fuel,  the  saving  in  the  coal- 
bill,  which  their  use  secured,  should  be  taken  into 
consideration. 

It  is  necessary  to  explain  that,  inasmuch  as  the  thorough 
separation  of  the  material  is  only  of  recent  date,  previous 
operations  having  been  confined  to  the  recovery  of  paper, 
old  metal  and  the  preparation  of  the  fertilizer  as  already 
mentioned,  the  item  "  Sundries  "  cannot  extend  any  criterion 
as  to  the  results  now  being  recorded,  nor  of  the  revenue 
derived  from  the  recovery  and  disposal  of  the  additional 
articles. 

The  successful  conversion  of  the  volume  of  dust,  com- 
prising about  50  per  cent,  of  the  aggregate,  into  a  marketable 
fertiliser,  offers  a  satisfactory  solution  of  a  complex  and 
perplexing  problem.  But  when  the  dust  is  coarser  and 
yet  deficient  in  "  bite  "  or  gritty  characteristic,  its  disposal 
is  not  so  readily  consummated  because  its  possible  applica- 
tions are  thereby  severely  narrowed  down  in  number. 

Speaking  generally,  the  utilization  of  the  fine  dust  may 
be  said  to  present  a  vexatious  question.  While  it  forms  an 
excellent  ingredient  for  a  compounded  fertilizer,  it  is  not  a 
simple  matter  to  discover  an  inexpensive,  and  preferably 
second,  refuse  constituent  of  approved  manurial  value  with 
which  to  associate  it.  The  majority  of  the  ingredients 
advocated  as  complying  with  the  desired  requirement  possess 
too  high  an  independent  fertilizing  value  for  such  an  applica- 
tion. In  itself  the  dust  is  of  very  low  soil-feeding  power,  and 
so  active  investigation  is  being  pursued  in  anticipation  of 
the  discovery  of  a  satisfactory  adjustment  to  this  question. 

Another  enterprising  illustration  of  what  can  be  achieved 
with  domestic,  office  and  warehouse  refuse,  both  organic  and 
inorganic,  is  extended  by  the  Port  of  Liverpool.  Here, 
again,  the  developments  to  be  recorded  in  this  connection 
are  not  attributable  to  the  war,  although  the  last-named 
factor  was  responsible  for  the  conduct  of  the  reclamatory 
process  upon  a  more  intensive  scale.     Liverpool  is  somewhat 

11 


162  MILLIONS  FROM  WASTE 

peculiarly  situate  among  the  importing  centres  of  the  United 
Kingdom  seeing  that  it  is  probably  the  largest  distributing 
centre  for  American  foodstuffs  for  this  country.  Consequently, 
as  is  only  to  be  expected,  very  considerable  quantities  of 
food  which  have  suffered  such  damage  during  transit  or 
demurrage  as  to  become  unfit  for  human  consumption 
have  to  be  handled.  Under  the  old  regime  all  organic  waste 
of  this  character  was  either  consigned  right  away  to  the 
destructor,  or  was  perfunctorially  treated  to  be  sold  as 
manure.  Neither  science  nor  brains  was  displayed  in 
its  disposal.  The  shortest  way  out  of  the  difficulty  was 
accepted  as  being  the  most  effective  in  the  public 
interests.  But  Liverpool  was  not  the  only  port  to 
follow  such  summary  practice.  It  was  common  to  all 
ports  of  the  country  in  greater  or  lesser  degree.  The 
public  loses  heavily  from  the  observance  of  such  depre- 
catory measures,  especially  when  it  is  borne  in  mind  that 
such  traffic  runs  into  tens  of  thousands  of  tons  during  the 
course  of  the  year.  But  under  pre-war  conditions,  owing  to 
the  plentitude  of  supplies  and  the  wide  distribution  of  the 
losses  incurred,  the  financial  effect  was  scarcely  felt  by  the 
unit  of  the  population. 

During  the  war  a  loud  wail  went  up  because  a  number  of 
hams  and  a  quantity  of  bacon  had  been  found  in  a  decomposed 
condition  at  a  certain  port.  Had  this  occurred  during  pre-war 
days  not  a  word  would  have  found  its  way  into  the  public 
press,  and  the  destructor  alone  would  have  known  of  the 
incident.  But  because  under  war  conditions  the  public 
was  directly  affected — was  clamouring  for  this  particular 
article  of  food — the  wastage  was  declared  to  be  intolerable. 
Fortunately,  in  this  instance,  owing  to  our  having  become 
more  enlightened,  the  spoiled  food  was  not  totally  lost. 
The  fat  was  reclaimed,  while  the  residue  was  turned  to  its 
most  profitable  account. 

At  Liverpool,  as  at  other  centres  where  a  vigilant  eye  is 
maintained  upon  the  clock  of  progress,  it  was  speedily 
discovered  that  the  methods  of  handling  such  refuse  were 
distinctly  deprecatory.  It  was  decided  to  introduce  improved 
practice.  One  material  was  treated  as  an  experiment,  and  the 
process  was  found  to  be  profitable.  Gradually  other  con- 
demned articles  of  food  were  taken  in  hand.  This  logical 
development  of    salvage  was  continued,  until  to-day  there 


LIVING   ON  WASTE  163 

is  very  little  material  entering  into  the  composition  of  the 
Liverpool  dust-bin  which  does  not  find  some  one  or  other 
useful  application. 

It  was  learned  from  studied  investigation  that  waste-food 
products  collected  with  the  refuse  of  the  city  might  be 
classified  into  five  broad  divisions,  namely  butchers'  and 
fishmongers'  offal,  damaged  fruit  and  vegetables,  damaged 
eggs,  damaged  canned  foods,  such  as  meat,  fish,  milk  and  so 
forth,  as  well  as  warehouse  sweepings.  Over  and  above  this 
assortment,  of  course,  came  the  miscellany  to  be  found  in 
every  ash-bin  drawn  from  the  home.  To  ensure  the  receipt 
of  the  offal  from  tradesmen  a  special  and  separate  collection 
from  all  retail  shops  dealing  in  fish  and  greengrocery  was 
inaugurated.  Subsequently,  to  prevent  the  wastage  of 
swill  suitable  for  the  sustenance  of  pigs,  a  special  collection 
from  private  houses  was  introduced. 

In  every  city  the  isolation  of  the  swill  from  the  general 
material  consigned  to  the  dust-bin  though  freely  urged 
is  a  somewhat  difficult  issue  to  carry  into  practice.  Segre- 
gation at  the  source  is  imperative  to  ensure  the  maximum 
results  being  attained.  But  the  Liverpool  authorities  over- 
come the  obstacle  very  satisfactorily.  The  residents  were 
notified  of  the  intention  of  the  department  charged  with 
this  duty,  while  officials  were  detailed  to  visit  and  to  explain 
to  residents  the  proposals,  and  to  extend  advice  upon  what, 
and  what  should  not,  be  thrown  into  the  dust-bin.  Moreover, 
the  City  Fathers  undertook  to  provide  each  house  with  a 
special  receptacle  for  the  swill,  and  to  collect  it  at  frequent 
intervals.  Experience  proved  that  collection  twice  a  week 
sufficed  to  meet  every  requirement. 

But,  as  a  rule,  when  the  suggestion  is  made  that  local 
authorities  should  provide  special  receptacles  for  swill,  demur 
is  made  on  the  plea  that  such  a  procedure  must  entail  further 
capital  expenditure.  Yet  it  can  be  carried  out  along  very 
inexpensive  lines  if  attacked  in  the  proper  spirit.  So  far 
as  Liverpool  has  been  concerned  it  was  even  found  possible 
to  turn  a  waste  article  to  such  account.  Among  the  flotsam 
and  jetsam  sent  to  the  corporation  depots  for  disposal  were 
thousands  of  tins  measuring  9x9x13  inches,  originally 
used  for  the  conveyance  of  oil  to  this  country.  Examination 
revealed  the  circumstance  that  these  discarded  receptacles 
could  readily  be  converted  into  swill-pails,  their  dimensions 


164  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

and  construction  admirably  adapting  them  to  such  a  duty. 
Forthwith  they  were  cleaned,  one  or  two  minor  alterations 
carried  out,  and  then  painted.  The  cost  of  adaptation  was 
less  than  is. — 25  cents — per  tin.  These  were  then  issued 
to  the  residents  who  expressed  readiness  to  co-operate  with 
the  efforts  of  the  authorities,  and  proved  a  complete  success. 
It  has  often  been  advanced  by  local  authorities  that  the 
residents  will  never  collaborate  in  such  schemes  of  segregation 
at  the  source,  declining  to  be  bothered,  but  the  experience 
gained  at  Liverpool  does  not  support  such  a  contention. 
The  inhabitants  of  the  city  astride  the  Mersey  responded 
very  promptly  to  the  request  to  save  and  segregate  their 
swill,  the  result  being  that  enormous  accumulations  of 
potential  and  valuable  pig-food  were  secured. 

Swill  supplies  being  assured,  the  next  step  was  to  handle 
this  waste  at  the  depot,  and  to  prepare  it  for  the  piggeries. 
The  City  Engineer,  Mr  John  A.  Brodie,  M.Inst.C.E.,  advanced 
a  complete  solution  to  this  problem  and  along  economical 
lines.  A  number  of  old  pitch  boilers  and  other  plant  was 
lying  idle  at  the  depot.  This  was  turned  out,  overhauled, 
rigged  up  and  coupled  up  to  the  steam  generating  equipment 
of  the  destructor.  The  household  swill  was  cooked  in  these 
vessels,  and  in  this  manner  a  first-class  pig-food  was  produced. 
To  ensure  the  consumption  of  the  swill  thus  obtained  the 
Corporation  installed  its  own  piggeries  and  poultry  runs 
upon  its  farms.  The  swill,  while  still  hot,  was  conveyed  to 
the  piggeries  in  the  municipal  motor  wagons  and  doled  out. 
Private  pig-raisers  were  also  at  liberty  to  obtain  the  swill 
in  the  heated  condition  if  they  cared  to  fetch  it.  This 
facility  was  readily  accepted,  inasmuch  as  it  saved  the  pig- 
keepers  the  trouble  and  time  of  conducting  collection  from 
houses  in  the  conventional  manner  and  then  boiling  it  upon 
their  farms  for  their  animals. 

Continuous  development  of  the  reclamation  of  waste 
problem  has  been  the  policy  of  the  Liverpool  civic  authorities. 
Satisfied  with  the  pecuniary  and  other  results  attending 
their  initial  efforts  the  City  Engineer  installed  an  inexpensive 
and  complete  plant  working  upon  the  Scott  system,  described 
in  another  chapter,  for  the  full  reclamation  of  the  material 
contained  in  the  city  refuse.  It  was  laid  down  at  the  central 
depot  primarily  to  treat  the  meat,  fish,  and  other  organic 
offal,  increasing  quantities  of  which  were  forthcoming.     The 


LIVING  ON  WASTE  165 

plant  in  question  comprises  a  digester,  dryer,  vacuum  pump, 
disintegrator  and  fat  tanks.  Electric  drive  is  employed 
throughout,  the  necessary  power  being  drawn  from  the 
municipal  generating  station. 

The  digester,  made  of  steel,  7  feet  long  by  3  feet  in  dia- 
meter, is  of  sufficient  capacity  to  receive  one  ton  of  refuse 
at  a  time,  and  works  at  a  pressure  of  60  lb.  It  is  charged 
from  the  top  and  emptied  from  the  bottom.  It  works  upon 
the  jacket  principle,  and  the  necessary  steam  may  be  admitted 
both  at  the  top  and  bottom  as  desired.  Top  and  bottom 
cocks  are  fitted  for  drawing  off  all  fatty  and  oily  liquid  for 
the  fat  tanks,  and  also  to  draw  off  the  liquor.  About  four 
hours  are  required  to  treat  the  charge. 

The  vacuum  dryer  is  a  drum,  4  feet  6  inches  deep  by  5  feet 
in  diameter,  and  is  also  able  to  receive  a  charge  of  one  ton. 
Top  and  bottom  facilities,  for  charging  and  emptying  re- 
spectively, are  provided.  Within  the  vessel  rotating  blades 
are  disposed  to  keep  the  contents  in  agitation  during  treat- 
ment, these  blades  making  about  25  revolutions  per  minute. 
All  foul  gases  arising  during  the  process  are  drawn  off  by  a 
vacuum  pump,  and  are  led  to  the  furnaces  to  be  consumed, 
thereby  being  rendered  innocuous  before  escaping  into  the 
atmosphere. 

The  disintegrater  is  a  cast-iron  cylinder  provided  with  a 
continuous  automatic  feed.  Within  the  vessel  are  set  a 
number  of  steel  arms  which  run  at  a  very  high  speed — about 
2,500  revolutions  per  minute — which  break  up  and  thoroughly 
disintegrate  the  refuse  introduced  until  it  is  able  to  pass 
through  the  meshes  of  the  screen  placed  at  the  bottom  of 
the  machine. 

The  process  is  very  simple.  The  refuse  is  dumped  into 
the  digester  which,  upon  being  filled,  is  sealed.  Steam  is 
turned  on,  and  the  resultant  cooking  releases  all  the  oleaginous 
constituents  of  the  contents,  which  are  floated  off  through 
the  cock  to  be  led  to  the  fat-recovery  tanks.  The  cooking 
is  continued  until  the  raw  waste  has  shed  every  drop  of 
recoverable  oil  and  grease.  The  digester  is  then  emptied, 
pressed,  and  the  cooked  material  passed  to  the  dryer  to  be 
dried,  thence  to  the  disintegrator  to  be  pulverized  or  ground 
to  the  required  degree  of  fineness. 

The  fatty  and  oil  liquors  drawn  from  the  digester  fall 
into  a  tank,  and  the  fat  and  grease  collecting  on  the  surface 


166  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

are  skimmed  off  to  be  passed  to  a  lower  tank.  All  tanks 
are  kept  at  a  certain  degree  of  temperature  by  means  of  a 
steam-heated  coil.  The  fat  and  oil  reclaimed  in  this  manner 
are  subsequently  treated  for  their  yield  of  glycerine,  the 
final  residue  entering  into  the  preparation  of  soap  and  other 
articles. 

The  solid  residues  recovered  from  the  disintegrator, 
representing  the  fibres  from  the  meat,  fish  offal  and  other 
solid  matter,  constitute  an  excellent  poultry  food.  According 
to  the  analyses  which  have  been  made  it  is  rich  in  the 
albuminoids  and  phosphates. 

While  the  foregoing  naturally  represents  the  foremost 
and  greatest  phase  of  salvage  activity  pursued  by  the  Liver- 
pool Corporation  it  by  no  means  exhausts  their  efforts  in 
this  direction.  Other  refuse  is  recovered  and  treated  for 
some  one  or  other  specific  commercial  purpose.  All  bones 
are  collected,  washed,  and  boiled  to  secure  the  fat,  the  solid 
matter  afterwards  being  ground  into  meal.  Vegetable 
refuse,  of  which  large  quantities  are  forthcoming,  especially 
from  the  markets,  are  dried  and  stored,  having  been  found 
useful  as  a  constituent  for  poultry  foods.  Fish,  both  offal 
and  unsold  inedible  surpluses  converted  directly  into  fertilizer. 
Wooden  refuse,  recovered  from  dust-bins  and  other  sources, 
is  heated  at  low  temperature  to  allow  carbonization  for  sale 
as  charcoal.  Large  quantities  of  straw,  both  clean  and  soiled, 
are  also  brought  in,  being  recovered  from  packing-cases  and 
crates.  The  clean  straw  is  segregated  to  be  chopped  finely, 
and  as  such  meets  with  a  ready  sale  among  poultry-raisers 
because  it  constitutes  a  very  effective  scratching  material. 
The  dirty  straw,  together  with  soiled  paper  and  old  wooden 
boxes  incapable  of  other  treatment,  as  well  as  other  light 
refuse,  are  burned  in  a  special  furnace  which  has  been  installed, 
care  being  observed  to  collect  the  ash.  As  the  latter  contains 
approximately  12  per  cent,  potash  it  forms  a  first-class 
fertilizer.  Banana  stalks  are  likewise  rich  in  potash,  and 
so,  by  submitting  the  stalks,  large  quantities  of  which  are 
forthcoming  from  the  fruit  markets  under  normal  conditions, 
to  a  special  treatment,  this  potash  is  recovered  and  is  turned 
over  to  the  soap-makers.  Oyster  shells  are  washed,  calcined, 
and  then  ground  for  sale  as  grit  to  poultry-raisers. 

Damaged  and  condemned  eggs  are  frequently  received 
in  large  quantities  from  the  docks,  warehouses  and  wholesale 


LIVING   ON  WASTE  167 

establishments.  One  consignment  numbered  no  fewer  than 
a  quarter  of  a  million.  Instead  of  being  used  as  fuel  for  the 
destructor,  these  eggs  are  boiled,  then  chopped,  dried  and 
together  with  the  shells  are  finely  ground  into  meal  for 
use  as  chicken  food. 

Consignments  of  ham  and  bacon  are  often  received  in 
heavy  quantities  at  times  from  the  docks.  This  inedible 
food  is  submitted  to  treatment  to  secure  the  various  com- 
mercial by-products  such  as  oil  and  grease,  the  residue 
being  ground  up  into  meal. 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  realized  that  Liverpool 
is  not  permitting  much  waste  of  any  commercial  character 
to  find  its  way  to  the  incinerator.  The  wise  policy  now 
being  pursued  is  bearing  fruit.  The  prices  which  have  been, 
and  still  are  being,  realized,  render  the  trouble  and  effort 
expended  well  worth  while.  The  meal  made  from  fish  offal, 
after  the  extraction  of  the  oil,  has  fetched  as  much  as  £25 
— $125 — per  ton,  while  the  butchers'  offal,  after  similar 
treatment,  has  commanded  an  equally  satisfactory  price. 
Even  the  refuse  gathered  from  the  households  of  the  city, 
and  capable  of  being  turned  into  poultry-meal,  which  exceeds 
20  tons  a  week,  is  promptly  sold  at  prices  ranging  up  to 
£15 — $75 — per  ton.  The  possibilities  attending  systematic 
collection  from  private  residences  have  also  been  conclusively 
established,  and  at  the  moment  the  Corporation  is  gathering 
a  round  1,000  tons  of  such  waste  from  certain  houses  in  the 
course  of  the  year.  Reclaimed  tins,  after  being  washed  and 
dried,  have  realized  up  to  £8 — $40 — per  ton,  while,  to  meet 
the  enhanced  request  for  organic  manure,  an  excellent 
fertilizer  is  being  prepared  from  certain  materials  which 
come  into  the  hands  of  the  authorities,  or  accrue  from  the 
practice  of  waste-reclaiming.  The  Corporation  are  able  to 
dispose  of  this  fertilizer  with  comparative  ease  at  the  rate 
of  50,000  tons  during  the  year. 

Other  towns  are  able  to  point  to  comparable  achievements 
in  connection  with  the  exploitation  of  waste  incurred  within 
their  areas.  Some  of  the  small  communities  are  even  able 
to  produce  some  startling  records  in  this  connection.  If 
all  our  civic  and  municipal  authorities  could  be  brought 
into  line  and  raised  to  the  productive  level  of  Glasgow  or 
Liverpool,  the  cumulative  benefits  to  the  nation  would  be 
enormous  and  far  reaching.     But,   as  yet,  only  a  fraction 


168  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

of  what  might  be  secured  is  being  turned  to  useful  account. 
For  instance,  it  is  computed  that  3,000  tons  of  first-class 
pig-food  could  be  recovered  from  London  alone  every  week — 
this  in  itself  would  show  a  heavy  yield  of  fats  and  greases 
if  properly  treated — but  at  present  it  is  being  wasted. 

Merely  because  foodstuffs — meat,  fish,  eggs,  fruit,  and 
other  commodities  innumerable  of  a  perishable  nature — 
are  condemned  as  being  unfit  for  the  service  of  man,  that  is 
not  to  say  they  have  completed  their  mission  in  the  scheme 
of  things  ordained  by  a  so-called  high  civilization.  Doubtless 
they  assist  in  the  manufacture  of  excellent  paving-stones, 
but  although  we  are  in  dire  need  of  houses  and  this  is  the 
concrete  age,  that  is  not  a  sufficiently  reasonable  excuse 
for  withdrawing  nitrogenous  products  from  the  cycle  of 
Nature. 


CHAPTER   XI 

POTATO   WASTE   AS   AN   ASSET  TO   INDUSTRY 

The  potato  has  entered  so  intimately  into  our  domestic 
life  as  to  be  regarded  as  indispensable  to  the  human  dietary. 
Whether  its  food  value  be  exaggerated  or  otherwise,  the 
fact  remains  that,  speaking  generally,  it  now  ranks  second 
to  wheat  in  the  estimation  of  the  bread-eating  nations. 
A  potato-less  dinner-table  would  create  more  dismay  than 
one  from  which  the  familiar  roll  is  missing,  while  some  of 
us  may  even  recall  the  widespread  misery  which  was  pro- 
voked in  Ireland  during  the  black  years  of  1845  and  1846 
from  the  failure  of  the  potato  crop.  The  succulent  tuber 
has  achieved  such  a  high  estate  among  the  community  as 
to  be  deemed  capable  of  taking  the  place  of  the  cereal 
associated  with  the  staff  of  life  should  exigencies  so  demand. 

In  view  of  such  extreme  popularity  it  is  not  surprising 
to  find  the  potato  cultivated  extensively  in  the  British 
Islands  to  serve  essentially  as  a  foodstuff  for  both  man  and 
beast.  No  allotment-holder  would  consider  his  endeavours 
to  be  complete  without  the  inclusion  of  this  vegetable  in 
his  gardening  programme.  As  illuminative  of  the  grip 
which  the  cult  of  the  potato  has  secured  upon  the  amateur 
son  of  Adam  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  allotment-holders 
of  England  and  Wales  raised  a  round  1,000,000  tons  of  this 
tuber,  for  the  most  part  upon  10-rod  plots,  during  the  year 
1918.  Many  farmers  now  regard  it  as  the  backbone  to  their 
agricultural  endeavours,  especially  in  those  parts  of  the 
country  where  the  soil  conditions  are  particularly  favourable 
to  its  easy  and  prolific  cultivation. 

Yet,  in  our  use  of  the  potato,  we  are  extremely  wasteful. 
We  lose  or  discard  at  least  one-third  of  what  we  grow.  It 
is  estimated  that  25  per  cent,  of  the  value  of  a  crop  is  lost 

169 


170  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

to  the  farmer  in  cartage,  carriage,  clamping,  bagging,  mar- 
keting, and  grading.  This  figure  does  not  take  into  account 
the  circumstance  that  only  the  cream  of  the  crop — the  ware 
potato — is  set  aside  for  human  consumption,  for  which, 
of  course,  the  maximum  price  is  demanded.  Neither  does 
it  refer  to  the  losses  incurred  from  the  ravages  of  diseases, 
which,  while  varying  according  to  the  soil  and  weather 
conditions,  are  always  material.  An  appreciable  propor- 
tion of  this  loss  and  waste  might  be  avoided  were  the  practice 
of  storage  by  clamping  superseded  by  a  method  more  in 
accordance  with  contemporary  thought. 

A  further  loss,  even  in  connection  with  those  set  aside 
for  the  table,  is  incurred  in  the  preparation  of  the  vegetable. 
Peeling,  as  a  rule,  is  clumsily  and  perfunctorily  performed, 
"  spud  drill  "  being  considered  as  one  of  the  drudgeries  of 
domestic  life,  because  a  pronounced  portion  of  the  edible 
flesh  is  removed  with  the  skin,  eyes  and  other  unsightly 
or  inedible  parts.  The  extent  of  this  loss  varies  with  the 
size  of  the  tuber  and  the  carelessness  or  skill  of  the  peeler. 
Consequently  it  may  vary  from  10  to  30  per  cent,  or  even 
more. 

What  is  done  with  the  peelings  ?  For  the  most  part, 
notably  in  towns  and  cities,  they  suffer  cremation,  either 
at  the  destructor,  via  the  dust-bin,  or  in  the  kitchen  stove. 
But  potato-peelings  constitute  an  expensive  fuel.  The 
rural  resident  is  generally  more  thrifty.  He  throws  the 
peelings  into  the  swill-tub  for  pig-food,  or  husbands  them 
to  boil  and  to  blend  with  grain  offal  to  sustain  his  poultry- 
run,  but  the  quantity  thus  turned  to  economic  account- 
is  really  an  insignificant  proportion  of  the  whole.  Quite 
600,000  tons  of  potato  offal  are  destroyed  in  ignorance 
during  the  year — a  deliberate  wastage  of  valuable  raw 
material. 

The  growers'  losses  are  equally  startling,  more  particu- 
larly in  clamping.  The  tubers  afflicted  with  disease  meet 
with  instant  rejection  and  destruction.  Even  the  balance 
of  good  and  sound  tubers,  remaining  after  the  selection  of 
the  ware  and  seed  grades,  is  utilized  along  the  most  wasteful 
lines,  being  regarded  as  fit  for  cattle  only. 

The  farmer  is  not  to  be  blamed  for  such  extravagant 
use  of  the  proportion  of  his  crop  which  fails  to  rise  to  the 
high  standard  set  for  the  table.     lie  has  not  been  enlightened 


POTATO   WASTE 


171 


either  in  regard  to  the  constitution  of  the  potato  or  its 
potential  industrial  uses.  Even  if  he  be  cognizant  of  these 
factors  he  cannot  more  profitably  exploit  his  surplus  owing 
to  the  absence  of  all  facilities  to  such  an  end. 

Of  what  is  the  potato  composed  ?     Here  is  the  result 
of  an  average  analysis  : — 


Per  cent 

Fat          

0-3 

Cellulose 

i 

Mineral  matter 

i 

Dextrine  and  pectose 

2 

Fibrin  and  albumen 

2'3 

Starch 

J7 

Water 

75 

Waste 

i'4 

The  term  "  waste  "  included  in  the  above  table  in  reality 
is  somewhat  misplaced,  as  I  explain  later.  The  starch 
content  is  also  a  variable  factor.  While  one  analysis  may 
show  a  percentage  of  only  15,  another  will  yield  a  figure 
exceeding  18  per  cent.  Consequently  that  quoted  may 
be  accepted  as  representative. 

Familiarity  with  the  chemical  composition  of  the  humble 
potato  prompted  the  Germans  to  regard  it  from  two  dis- 
tinct view-points.  The  one,  as  in  these  islands,  concerned 
its  food  potentialities  ;  the  second  took  into  consideration 
its  possible  application  as  a  raw  material  for  several  indus- 
tries, such  as  the  manufacture  of  alcohol,  starch,  glucose, 
dextrine,  and  other  articles  of  commerce.  Consequently, 
potato  quotations  upon  the  Teuton  markets  were  dual  and 
distinct.  The  one  price,  which  was  the  higher,  related  to 
produce  intended  for  the  table,  while  the  second,  and  lower, 
governed  its  industrial  use. 

The  provision  of  two  separate  markets  for  the  commodity 
produced  the  inevitable  result.  Farmers  were  assured  of 
lucrative  prices  for  their  crop  set  aside  for  edible  use,  while 
the  second  market  absorbed  practically  the  whole  of  what 
was  not  required  to  satisfy  the  first-named  demand,  and 
that  at  an  attractive  figure.  Accordingly,  there  was  every 
inducement  to  bring  more  and  more  acres  under  the  tuber, 
which  led  to  the  reclamation  of  poor  soils  regarded  as  utterly 
useless  for  general  agriculture. 

But   the   encouragement   thus   extended   wrought   many 


172  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

other  far-reaching  benefits.  To  persuade  the  poor  soils 
devoted  to  the  culture  of  the  potato  to  become  fertile  led 
to  an  increased  demand  for  artificial  fertilizers,  and  provided 
a  big  domestic  outlet  for  the  native  potash.  The  farmers 
were  enlightened  as  to  the  many  virtues  possessed  by  such 
manures  and  were  urged  to  use  them  liberally.  The  potash 
deposits  were  not  the  only  home  resources  to  enjoy  pros- 
perity from  such  propaganda.  The  steel  industry  reaped 
a  certain  measure  of  profit,  because  the  land  offered  an 
encouraging  market  for  the  enormous  accumulations  of 
basic  slag  arising  from  the  working  in  steel.  Then  the 
alcohol  derived  from  the  potato  assisted  other  industries, 
notably  that  concerned  with  the  manufacture  of  coal-tar 
dyestuffs.  From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  increased 
production  of  the  potato,  and  its  submission  to  the  most 
economic  processes,  exercised  a  repercussive  effect  in  various 
directions. 

It  was  the  pursuit  of  this  policy  which  enabled  Germany 
to  raise  54,000,000  tons  of  potatoes  a  year.  Of  this  enormous 
yield  approximately  30,000  tons  were  used  to  feed  other 
industries  with  essential  raw  materials.  The  energy  dis- 
played by  the  farmer  resulted  in  the  supply  exceeding  the 
demand,  so  it  became  necessary  to  devise  measures  to  cope 
with  the  glut  to  avoid  the  grower,  from  the  receipt  of  ab- 
surdly low  prices,  being  discouraged.  The  German  farmer 
does  not  favour  clamping  :  he  desires  to  dispose  of  his 
product  immediately  it  is  gathered.  With  such  an  enormous 
output  this  tendency  proved  an  awkward  obstacle.  The 
auxiliary  industries  planned  their  operations  upon  a  twelve 
months  scale.  That  is  to  say,  they  naturally  desired  to 
work  steadily  the  whole  year  round.  The  raw  material  from 
the  soil  came  to  hand  in  tidal  waves,  and  inconveniently. 

The  problem  of  meeting  these  sudden  seasonal  surges 
provoked  difficulty  and  dissatisfaction.  The  dependent 
industries  acquired  their  requirements,  which  left  a  very 
large  quantity  of  potatoes  upon  the  growers'  hands.  They 
could  not  hold  them  through  the  winter  owing  to  the  extreme 
susceptibility  of  this  vegetable  to  injury  from  frost.  The 
merchants  were  ready  to  accept  delivery  and  to  hold  them 
in  store  against  the  calls  of  commerce,  but  only  at  a  price 
which  was  so  low  as  to  leave  the  growers  on  the  wrong  side. 
The  latter,  dissatisfied,    threatened    retaliation  in  the  form 


POTATO  WASTE  173 

of  curtailment  of  production.  At  this  declaration  the 
alcohol-distilling  interests  took  alarm.  To  secure  them- 
selves against  any  shortage  of  raw  material  they  decided 
to  hasten  to  the  farmers'  assistance,  the  merchants  being 
ignored.  The  Alcohol  Association  and  the  Farmers'  Societies 
collaborated  to  perfect  ways  and  means  of  saving  the  surplus 
both  from  destruction  and  the  profiteering  of  the  factors. 
The  co-operation  of  the  Government  was  also  sought.  The 
last-named  assented  to  extend  tangible  aid  and  forthwith 
prizes  to  the  value  of  £1,500 — $7,500 — were  offered  to 
stimulate  inventive  fertility.  As  a  result  of  the  various 
discussions  it  was  decided  that  the  most  promising  solution 
of  the  vital  question  would  be  to  convert  the  potato  into 
a  dried  product. 

Inventive  effort  responded  very  promptly  upon  the 
narrowing  down  of  the  issue.  As  a  result  of  searching  tests 
two  dehydrating  methods  were  adopted.  By  these  pro- 
cesses the  potatoes  are  washed,  cooked,  dried,  and  reduced 
to  a  flake  and  shredded  form  respectively.  The  product 
from  the  first-named  process  is  described  as  "  flocken " 
from  its  flake-like  character,  while  the  second  is  called 
"  schnitzel."  The  latter  is  the  cheaper  process,  the  cost 
of  dehydrating  a  ton  of  potatoes  being  about  4s. — $1.00 — 
while  the  conversion  of  a  ton  of  tubers  into  flocken  costs 
10s. — $2.50.  However,  the  capital  investment  incurred 
with  the  machinery  for  producing  schnitzel  is  higher  than 
that  for  yielding  the  flake,  and  initial  outlay  being  the 
most  compelling  feature  it  is  the  process  which  has  been 
most  widely  adopted.  In  1914  there  were  over  400  factories 
in  operation  converting  the  surplus  potato  crop  into  a  dried 
form  of  which  about  75  per  cent,  followed  the  flocken 
method.  But  it  does  not  matter  which  process  is  employed, 
the  result  is  the  same — the  production  of  a  dried  potato 
pulp,  capable  of  being  kept  indefinitely  so  long  as  it  is  pro- 
tected against  the  ravages  of  damp,  and  which  suffers  no 
injury  from  frost.  From  this  dehydrated  potato  it  is  possible 
to  work  up  a  cheap,  excellent  cattle-food. 

The  ability  to  render  the  potato  into  a  convenient  dry 
form  at  a  low  figure  prompted  other  countries,  notably 
Japan  and  the  United  States  of  America,  to  resort  to  similar 
methods,  but  to  a  different  end.  The  potato  is  rich  in 
carbohydrates,    and    this    fact    suggested    the    subsequent 


174  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

milling  of  the  dry  material  into  a  flour,  commercially  known 
as  "  farina,"  which  has  proved  a  conspicuous  commercial 
success.  The  demand  for  this  flour  is  expanding  rapidly, 
because  it  serves  as  excellent  material  for  the  preparation 
of  bun-flours,  cake-flours,  custard-powders,  soups,  and  other 
foodstuffs,  designed  and  marketed  with  the  primary  idea 
of  lessening  the  worries  and  labours  of  the  housewife. 

Previous  to  the  war  the  price  for  this  imported  article 
varied  between  £25  and  £35 — $125  and  $175 — per  ton, 
the  cost  of  production  ranging  from  £14  to  £20 — $70  to 
$100 — per  ton.  The  margin  of  profit  was  sufficiently  wide 
to  warrant  the  development  of  the  process.  Under  war 
conditions  the  price  soared  as  high  as  £90 — $450 — per  ton, 
but  subsequently  dropped  to  about  £45-^50 — $225- $250. 
A  very  marked  diminution  upon  this  latter  figure  is  im- 
probable, owing  to  the  increased  manufacturing  costs  which 
now  rule. 

Therefore  the  question  arises  as  to  whether  Britain 
cannot  turn  the  balance  of  her  potato  crop  to  greater 
commercial  advantage.  There  is  no  reason  why  we  should 
not  do  so,  seeing  that  in  1913  we  imported  over  40,000 
tons  of  farina,  while  in  1917  the  value  of  our  importation 
of  this  flour  rose  to  £1,040,319 — $5,201,595 — for  about 
25,000  tons.  It  must  be  conceded,  however,  that  under 
present  conditions  less  scope  exists  for  such  a  manifestation 
of  enterprise  in  this  country,  seeing  that  our  potato  crop 
is  only  about  one-tenth  of  what  Germany  normally  raises. 
But  the  demand  for  the  by-products  in  this  country  is  every 
whit  as  heavy  and  sustained  as  in  Germany,  while  the  fact 
that  in  this  raw  material  we  have  the  base  wherewith  to 
revive  an  industry — the  production  of  starch — which  Ger- 
many wrenched  from  us  by  unscrupulous  trading,  alone  should 
be  sufficiently  attractive  to  warrant  such  an  attempt  being 
made.  Our  consumption  of  starch  is  heavy,  exceeding 
50,000  tons  a  year,  while  our  purchases  of  dextrine  and 
unpotable  methylic-alcohol,  both  of  which  can  be  made 
from  the  potato,  run  into  £70,000 — $350,000 — apiece 
during  the  year.  Even  the  industrial  alcohol,  despite  the 
adverse  taxation  conditions  which  prevail,  is  in  urgent 
demand  for  many  new  industries. 

If  we  confine  the  issue  to  the  farina  we  have  a  dis- 
tinctly promising  outlook.     British  inventive  effort  has  been 


POTATO   WASTE    .  175 

encouraged,  and  has  evolved  a  process  and  product  of  this 
character  which  are  immeasurably  superior  to  those  of  the 
foreigner.  To  us  the  domestic  manufacture  of  farina  is  of 
far  wider  significance  than  its  mere  mention  might  suggest, 
inasmuch  as  it  would  prove  of  far-reaching  value  as  an 
ingredient  to  the  loaf.  As  a  matter  of  fact  the  authorities, 
in  their  resolve  to  grapple  with  the  national  food  question, 
provisionally  ear-marked  2,000,000  tons  of  the  1918  British 
potato  crop  for  conversion  into  farina,  to  be  blended  with 
the  domestic  wheaten  flour,  to  induce  the  supplies  of  the 
last-named  to  go  farther.  The  conclusion  of  hostilities 
rendered  this  precautionary  measure  unnecessary. 

In  the  eyes  of  many  people  the  addition  of  potato-flour 
to  wheaten  flour  for  bread  may  seem  reprehensible,  and  to 
savour  of  adulteration.  Prejudice  is  a  wellnigh  insuperable 
obstacle  to  overcome.  But  in  this  instance  such  opposition 
is  misplaced.  The  introduction  of  farina  to  the  loaf  cannot 
be  regarded  as  an  adulterant,  substitute,  or  even  a  diluent. 
Rightly  or  wrongly,  the  potato  is  invested  with  a  high 
food  value  :  in  some  quarters  it  is  even  held  to  be  an  equiva- 
lent to  the  wheat  flour.  Doubtless  opposition  would  arise 
from  memories  of  the  practice  which  obtained  during  the 
early  days  of  the  war.  But  the  faults  which  were  encoun- 
tered then  were  due  to  the  method  and  not  to  any  short- 
comings upon  the  part  of  the  ingredient. 

The  utilization  of  the  potato  for  the  production  of  bread 
is  not  even  a  modern  innovation.  It  really  represents  a 
revival  of  a  long-since  abandoned  and  wellnigh  forgotten 
art.  In  the  early  years  of  the  Victorian  era  our  bakers  were 
compelled  to  make  resort  to  the  potato  as  a  constituent  of 
the  loaf.  The  home-grown  wheat  physiologically  was  not 
adapted  to  the  making  of  bread,  and  the  same  argument 
applies  more  or  less  to  the  domestically  grown  cereal  of 
these  days.  Normally,  only  a  certain  volume  can  be  used  ; 
it  has  to  be  blended  with  imported  flour  to  obtain  the 
requisite  percentage  of  gluten  in  which  the  domestic  cereal 
is  deficient.  The  bakers  of  a  century  ago  used  the  potato 
to  obtain  the  gluten  content.  With  the  availability  of  the 
more  glutinous  imported  flour  recourse  to  the  potato 
declined,  until  finally  the  practice  was  abandoned. 

The  revival  of  the  principle  to  meet  the  conditions  of 
war  proved  a  failure  from  the  simple  fact  that  the  baker 


176  MILLIONS   FROM   WASTE 

had  lost  his  cunning,  and  was  neither  so  clean  nor  so  pains- 
taking as  his  forbears  in  regard  to  his  utensils  and  the  handling 
of  the  tuber.  The  potato  is  particularly  sensitive  to  con- 
tamination. Should  an  imperfectly-cleaned  utensil  be  used 
the  resultant  bread  will  speedily  sour.  Moreover,  the  mash- 
ing of  the  potato  was  carried  out  very  indifferently,  while 
its  admixture  with  the  other  constituents  was  still  more 
unsatisfactorily  fulfilled,  with  the  result  that  the  loaf  was 
a  spongy,  unattractive,  unappetizing,  and  indigestible  mass 
of  doubtful  nutritive  value. 

If  the  potato  be  used  in  the  farinaceous  form  no  such 
objections  can  be  levelled  against  the  ultimate  bread.  The 
ingredients  can  be  blended  more  completely.  It  is  this 
circumstance  which  renders  the  outlook  for  the  potato- 
flour  so  promising,  and  the  British  process  which  has  been 
perfected  for  its  production  should  meet  with  far  more 
gratifying  success. 

The  preparation  of  the  farina  is  simple  and  straight- 
forward. The  potatoes  are  taken  in  hand  immediately 
after  they  have  been  dug,  and  so  are  perfectly  fresh.  They 
are  emptied  into  hoppers  to  pass  to  the  washing  machine. 
Then  they  proceed  to  the  steam-cooker  where,  unpeeled, 
they  are  partially  cooked.  Finally  they  are  conveyed  to 
the  flaking  machine,  where  the  first  stage  of  the  process  is 
completed.  The  potato  is  passed  between  closely-set, 
internally-heated  rollers,  the  pulp  being  rolled  out  into  a 
continuous  sheet  about  as  thick  as  tissue  paper.  During 
this  stage  the  cooking  process  is  completed,  while  the  product 
is  dried  and  converted  into  a  crisp  substance  which  is  peeled 
from  the  final  roller  to  fall  in  a  shower  of  tiny  flakes  into  a 
trough.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  skin,  eyes,  and  other 
deleterious  portions,  from  which  all  flesh  has  fallen  away, 
is  collected  with  the  main  product. 

Cooking,  pulping,  and  flaking  expels  practically  the 
whole  of  the  75  per  cent,  of  water  entering  into  the  composi 
tion  of  the  raw  potato.  The  secret  of  the  process  is  the 
control  of  the  temperature,  which  must  be  maintained  at 
a  critical  level,  to  assure  the  perfection  of  the  product.  If 
this  be  excessive  there  is  the  risk  of  the  flake  becoming 
charred,  while,  similarly,  should  the  heat  fall  below  the 
predetermined  point,  the  product  will  lack  dryness  and 
crispness.     As    may    be    imagined,    the    treatment    reduces 


POTATO   WASTE  177 

the  bulk  of  the  potato  very  perceptibly,  5  tons  of  potatoes 
being  required  to  furnish  1  ton  of  flake. 

The  second  process  is  of  the  conventional  milling 
character,  the  flake  being  ground  to  an  extremely  fine 
consistency.  During  this  process  the  skin  and  all  other 
inedible  portions  are  removed.  It  may  be  mentioned  that 
by  turning  the  tubers  into  flake,  slightly  diseased  potatoes, 
which  would  be  useless  for  the  table,  or  which  could  only 
be  wastefully  adapted  to  such  a  purpose,  may  be  used  without 
imperilling  the  purity  of  the  product  in  any  way,  and  with 
the  minimum  of  loss.  The  flaking  process  presents  an 
absolutely  sterilized  flour,  the  diseased  portions  being  removed 
during  milling. 

All  offal  is  carefully  collected  to  be  treated  separately. 
It  has  pronounced  food  value  for  cattle,  and,  consequently, 
is  converted  into  a  meal.  The  production  of  1  ton  of  farina 
yields  about  300  lb.  of  offal,  worth  about  £20 — $100 — a 
ton.  The  farina  itself  is  of  very  fine  consistency,  yellowish- 
white  in  colour,  appetizing  in  appearance,  of  pleasing  aroma, 
the  distinctive  fragrance  of  the  potato  being  scarcely  dis- 
cernible, and,  if  preserved  from  the  damp,  may  be  kept 
indefinitely. 

It  is  not  imperative  that  the  flake  should  be  milled 
immediately.  In  the  former  condition  the  potato  may  be 
safely  stored  in  bags  in  a  dry  place  after  the  manner  of 
grain.  It  is  not  even  essential  to  turn  it  into  farina  at  all. 
In  the  flake  form  it  constitutes  an  excellent  base  for  the 
other  industries  to  which  it  may  be  applied.  It  may  be 
distilled  for  the  extraction  of  the  alcohol,  excellent  whisky, 
as  is  doubtless  well  known,  being  made  from  the  potato, 
while  large  quantities  of  British  brandies  are  produced 
from  the  starch  which,  by  treatment  with  weak  sulphuric 
acid,  is  converted  into  glucose,  which  is  then  fermented. 
Thus,  it  will  be  seen,  the  flake  really  represents  the  starting- 
point  for  numerous  applications,  each  of  which  has  its 
individual  commercial  possibilities.  The  outstanding  ad- 
vantage accruing  from  the  conversion  of  the  potato  into 
flake  is  that  it  enables  the  product  to  be  kept  indefinitely, 
without  suffering  the  slightest  deterioration,  and  without 
any  waste  being  incurred.  I  have  seen  samples  which  have 
been  stored  for  seven  years,  and  which  to-day  are  in  every 
way  as  good  as  flake  fresh  from  the  machine. 

12 


178  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

In  setting  forth  the  composition  of  the  succulent  tuber 
I  referred  to  the  item  waste,  which  in  the  analysis  given 
stands  at  1*4  per  cent.  This  is  the  ultimate  residue  from 
certain  operations,  but  is  not  common  to  all,  as,  for  instance, 
in  the  production  of  farina,  where  everything  of  a  solid 
nature  is  utilized.  But  in  some  branches  of  industrial  use 
there  results  a  residue  for  which,  at  present,  no  attractive 
purpose  has  been  found,  although  there  are  hopes  that 
even  this  insignificant  fraction  will  ultimately  prove  capable 
of  profitable  exploitation. 

Turning  once  more  to  the  utilization  of  farina  as  a 
constituent  of  the  loaf,  we  encounter  a  possible  development 
which  should  play  a  very  emphatic  part  towards  rendering 
ourselves  less  dependent  upon  foreign  sources  of  wheat 
supplies.  A  series  of  baking  tests  were  conducted  under 
ordinary  commercial  conditions.  The  farina  was  mixed 
with  the  wheat-flour  in  the  proportion  of  5  per  cent,  of  the 
former  to  a  sack  of  the  latter.  Government  Regulation 
flour  was  employed.  The  sack  contains  280  lb.,  so  that 
the  addition  of  the  farina  was  equal  to  14  lb.  Seeing  that 
the  farina  represents  the  potato  in  a  highly  concentrated 
form — 5  to  1 — the  addition  was  really  equal  to  70  lb.  of 
mashed  potatoes — a  degree  to  which  no  ordinary  baker 
would  be  prepared  to  venture. 

In  the  first  test  the  bread  was  moulded  by  hand,  and 
the  sack  produced  104  loaves,  each  weighing,  ready  for  the 
oven,  2  lb.  3  oz.,  as  compared  with  94  loaves  of  equivalent 
weight  normally  obtained  from  the  sack  at  this  bakery. 
Under  machine  bread-making  conditions,  which  obtained 
with  the  second  test,  and  which  was  in  accordance  with  the 
conventional  practice  of  the  firm  in  question,  the  yield 
from  the  blended  flour,  for  technical  reasons,  was  slightly 
lower,  being  101  loaves,  the  weight  of  the  loaf,  ready  for 
the  oven,  being  the  same  as  in  the  first  experiment. 

Baking  was  conducted  at  a  temperature  of  560  degrees, 
the  loaves  scaling  barely  2  lb.  2  oz.  upon  withdrawal 
from  the  oven,  and  falling  to  2  lb.  net  fifteen  hours  after 
baking.  The  bread  was  examined  by  experts  who  were 
present,  and  was  declared  to  leave  little  or  nothing  to  be 
desired.  Judging  from  the  public  point  of  view  it  was 
held  to  be  more  attractive,  owing  to  its  increased  volume, 
even  texture,  and  perfect  homogeneity,  while  it  was  found 
to  be  more  digestible  and  satisfying. 


POTATO  WASTE  179 

In  the  hot  condition  the  bread  revealed  only  a  slight 
trace  of  the  peculiar  fragrance  of  the  potato,  but  this  dis- 
appeared entirely  upon  cooling.  The  palate  was  unable 
to  detect  the  potato-flour  addition.  The  keeping  qualities 
of  this  bread  aroused  particular  comment.  Four  days 
after  baking  it  was  found  to  be  still  moist,  while,  upon  the 
lapse  of  a  fortnight,  two  loaves  were  rebaked  and  then 
found  to  be  totally  free  from  sourness.  The  striking  success 
recorded  was  accepted  by  the  expert  opinion  to  be  sufficiently 
conclusive  :  indeed,  the  suggestion  was  made  that  the  pro- 
portion of  farina  might  safely  be  increased  to  y\  per  cent, 
without  allowing  the  presence  of  the  potato  to  be  detected. 
Tests  were  also  carried  out  to  determine  the  suitability  of 
the  potato-flour  as  an  ingredient  in  the  preparation  of 
cakes  and  pastries.  Here  again  the  blended  flour  was 
unequivocally  declared  to  yield  better  and  more  appetizing 
articles  than  was  possible  with  pure  wheaten  flour. 

But,  taking  the  5  per  cent,  addition  as  the  figure  coin- 
ciding with  all-round  requirements,  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
potato  holds  out  great  economic  possibilities  towards  the 
reduction  of  the  expense  of  the  nation's  bread  bill.  During 
the  year  1916  our  consumption  of  flour  totalled  37,000,000 
sacks,  of  which  approximately  12,000,000  sacks  represented 
imported  flour.  Assuming  that  30,000,000  sacks  were 
devoted  to  the  production  of  bread,  the  aggregate  yield 
of  loaves  was  approximately  2,820,000,000.  Had  we  used 
home-produced  farina  from  home-grown  potatoes  to  the 
extent  of  5  per  cent,  we  could  have  reduced  the  foregoing 
consumption  of  the  wheaten  product  by  1,500,000  sacks,  and 
that  without  losing  a  single  loaf.  As  a  matter  of  fact  we 
would  have  been  better  off,  because,  on  the  higher  average 
yield  of  101  loaves  per  sack  to  which  farina  has  been  added, 
we  should  have  obtained  2,875,500,000  loaves — an  increase 
°f  55>5o°>ooo  loaves. 

The  economy  possible  from  the  more  enterprising  utiliza- 
tion of  the  potato  in  connection  with  our  daily  bread  is  so 
impressive  as  to  command  attention,  even  to-day.  Presuming 
that  the  foregoing  figures  still  hold  good,  the  blending  of 
5  per  cent,  of  native  farina  would  save  200,000  tons  of 
shipping  per  year.  To  supply  the  requisite  188,000  tons  of 
farina  would  involve  940,000  tons  of  potatoes.  Seeing  that 
the  authorities,   under  the   dictates   of   war,   contemplated 


180  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

setting  aside  2,000,000  tons  from  the  1918  crop  for  the 
production  of  potato-flour,  such  a  demand  as  indicated  would 
not  impose  an  intolerable  strain  upon  our  potato-growing 
resources.  Were  such  a  scheme  carried  to  fruition  we 
should  also  be  able  to  recover  28,000  tons  of  valuable  cattle 
meal  to  feed  our  stock  during  the  winter  season. 

But,  as  already  mentioned,  the  farina  represents  only 
one  phase  of  a  big  issue  possessed  of  vast  possibilities.  The 
other  available  openings  for  the  products  of  the  tuber  would 
consume  from  four  to  eight  times  the  volume  of  potatoes 
available.  In  Germany,  out  of  the  total  54,000,000  tons 
raised  during  the  year  only  a  round  4,000,000  tons  have  to 
be  turned  into  flocken  and  schnitzel  to  save  them  from 
destruction  by  frost.  In  these  circumstances  there  would 
appear  to  be  scope  for  the  cultivation  of  a  further  5,000,000 
tons,  or  twice  the  prevailing  annual  crop  in  these  islands, 
with  this  advantage.  The  farmer,  assured  of  his  market 
and  a  fair  price  for  his  product,  would  be  encouraged  to 
extend  his  activities,  and  would  be  prompted  to  exploit 
considerable  acreage  of  land  which  at  present  is  regarded 
as  waste,  for  the  simple  reason  that  it  cannot  be  cultivated 
under  existing  conditions  to  profit. 

Even  disease  and  its  ravages  would  be  regarded  by  the 
growers  with  perfect  equanimity  were  the  industrial  uses 
of  the  potato  to  be  developed  in  this  country.  A  farmer 
would  not  be  faced  with  disaster  in  such  an  eventuality, 
as  is  the  case  to-day,  because  the  diseased  tubers  would 
be  available  for  the  production  of  alcohol.  Indeed,  the 
more  advanced  the  stage  of  disease  the  more  suitable  is 
the  potato  to  this  range  of  exploitation. 

Lifting  the  commercial  horizon,  in  so  far  as  it  affects 
the  potato,  demands  support  for  other  reasons.  It  would 
encourage  inventive  effort,  which,  in  turn,  would  undoubtedly 
lead  to  the  elimination  of  wastage  in  the  household.  Evapo- 
rative or  dehydrating  processes  are  already  in  operation, 
and  it  is  only  logical  to  assume  that  this  tendency  is  capable 
of  considerable  expansion.  The  perfection  of  a  simple  and 
inexpensive  process  of  drying  the  potato,  either  whole  or 
in  conveniently  sized  sections,  as  is  common  to  culinary 
practice,  capable  of  restoration,  if  necessary,  to  the  original 
condition  before  cooking  for  the  table,  would  benefit  the 
whole  community.     "  Spud  drill,"   the  bete  noire  of  every 


POTATO  WASTE  181 

home,  restaurant  and  hotel,  with  its  concomitant  wastage 
of  time  and  heavy  loss  of  valuable  food  material,  would 
be  eliminated.  The  removal  of  the  greater  part,  or  whole, 
of  the  75  per  cent,  of  the  water  contained  in  the  raw  tuber 
would  decrease  bulk,  and  effect  a  very  valuable  saving  in 
transport.  At  the  present  moment  the  carriage  of  one 
ton  of  potatoes  involves  the  useless  dragging  about  of 
15  cwt.  of  water  which  is  superfluous.  Only  5  cwt.  of 
the  load  represents  solid  foodstuff.  Dry  the  potato,  expel 
the  water,  and  from  4  to  5  tons  of  the  product  could  be 
carried  in  the  space  now  demanded  to  receive  one  ton.  We 
have  milk,  peas,  fruits,  and  other  commodities  innumerable 
in  an  evaporated  form,  which  in  their  raw  condition  are 
associated  with  heavy  proportions  of  water,  so  that  there 
does  not  appear  to  be  any  valid  reason  why  the  potato 
should  not  be  supplied  to  the  housewife  in  a  similar  form 
and  at  a  low  figure.  The  perfection  of  such  a  process  would 
completely  obviate  all  waste  because  the  offal — the  peel 
and  other  inedible  portions — would  be  recovered  for  conver- 
sion into  food  for  animals,  instead  of  suffering  incineration. 
The  recovery  of  the  skin  alone  would  bring  within  reach  of 
the  cattle-raiser  for  winter  feed  upwards  of  30,000  tons  of  meal 
worth  from  £400,000  to  £600,000 — $2,000,000  to  $3,000,000. 

We,  who  live  in  these  islands,  scarcely  understand  the 
potato.  We  are  content  to  cling  tenaciously  to  the  traditions 
established  three  hundred  years  ago.  It  is  estimated  that 
the  British  farmers  lost  over  £6,000,000 — $30,000,000 — 
in  handling  their  1918  crop  owing  to  the  employment  of 
obsolete  and  wasteful  methods.  The  greater  part,  if  not 
the  whole,  of  this  loss  might  have  been  averted  had  more 
enlightened  methods  prevailed  concerning  the  utilization 
of  the  tuber.  The  above-mentioned  figure  does  not  take 
into  account  the  losses  suffered  from  disease  and  other 
causes,  which  must  also  have  amounted  to  millions  sterling. 

Our  system  is  as  pre-historic  as  many  of  the  agricultural 
methods  practised  by  the  fellaheen  in  the  Land  of  the 
Pharaohs.  The  potatoes  are  dug  and  then  collected  for 
storage  in  big  clamps.  These  have  to  be  opened  at  intervals 
to  allow  the  contents  to  be  turned  over  and  inspected,  to 
ascertain  whether  or  no  latent  disease  has  asserted  itself. 
The  potatoes  have  to  be  graded  and  bagged  preparatory 
for  market,  while  there  is  the  formidable  item  of  transport 


182  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

to  be  considered.  Between  the  harvesting  of  the  crop  and 
its  ultimate  disposal  considerable  handling  ensues,  while 
the  difference  in  value  between  the  "  ware,"  or  table,  pota- 
toes and  the  "  chats,"  or  those  regarded  as  fit  only  for  the 
pigs,  is  also  ver}/  pronounced. 

Contrast  this  method  with  what  would  obtain  were  we 
to  develop  the  Continental  system.  After  digging  and 
grading  the  crop  the  farmer  would  merely  be  called  upon 
to  convey  his  harvest  to  the  factory,  when  all  anxiety,  so 
far  as  he  was  concerned,  would  end.  The  method  would 
be  comparable  with  that  pertaining  to  the  handling  of  the 
wheat  harvest  in  the  great  grain-growing  countries,  where 
the  farmer  is  merely  called  upon  to  gather  his  grain  and  to 
haul  it  to  the  elevator.  The  saving  in  time  and  labour 
alone — two  vital  factors  in  these  days — would  be  incalcul- 
able, while  the  risks  of  loss  of  crop  would  be  completely 
obviated. 

The  super-scientific  exploitation  of  the  potato  would 
extend  far-reaching  benefits  in  every  direction.  Not  only 
would  considerable  stretches  of  derelict  agricultural  Britain 
be  brought  into  productivity,  but  the  very  stimulation  of 
the  poor  soils  would  bring  about  startling  expansion  in 
the  production  of  artificial  fertilizers,  and  would  tend  to 
stabilize  such  industries.  In  this  way  the  recovery  of 
waste  in  many  other  directions  would  be  fostered — potash 
from  the  flues  of  the  blast  furnaces  ;  basic  slag  from  the 
dumps  disfiguring  the  countryside  in  the  vicinity  of  our 
ironworks  ;  sulphate  of  ammonia  from  our  gas  and  coking 
ovens  ;  nitrates  from  the  air.  These  would  offer  scope  for 
employment,  and  tend  to  keep  money  within  the  confines 
of  these  islands,  because  the  expansion  of  waste-recovery 
plants  upon  a  sufficiently  impressive  scale  in  the  interests 
of  agriculture,  with  the  local  demand  constituting  the 
backbone  of  the  trade,  would  encourage  production  for 
export.  The  labour  thus  absorbed  would  more  than  counter- 
balance the  displacement  experienced  on  the  farms,  and 
would  redound  to  the  benefit  of  the  latter,  because  foods 
for  poor  and  rich  soils  would  be  turned  out  in  increasing 
streams  and  at  lower  prices.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  any 
development  of  the  potato,  along  modern  scientific  lines, 
and  in  such  a  way  as  to  frustrate  waste,  must  represent 
a  big  stride  forward  in  the  progressive  cycle. 


CHAPTER  XII 

CONVERTING  NITROGENOUS  REFUSE  INTO  SOAP 

A  startling  corollary  of  contemporary  economic  conditions 
is  the  spirited  struggle  which  is  now  being  waged  between 
the  table  and  the  bath.  The  structural  fabric  of  the  human 
body  demands  a  certain  proportion  of  fat  to  ensure  its 
smooth  rhythmic  working  in  precisely  the  same  way  as 
a  machine  requires  oil.  At  the  same  time  a  cleanser  is 
necessary  wherewith  to  scour  the  external  surface  of  the 
body  to  obtain  protection  against  the  ravages  of  disease. 
Fat  is  essential  to  fulfil  this  mission  also.  But  there  is  an 
insufficient  supply  forthcoming  to  meet  the  complete  claims 
of  both.  So  the  question  arises — Which  shall  be  satisfied  ? 
Little  Mary  or  Mother  llygeia  ? 

When  Mege  Mouries,  animated  by  the  contention  that 
it  was  preferable  for  the  poor  of  Paris  to  be  able  to  obtain 
a  first-class  nutritive  butter  substitute  in  preference  to 
butter  of  doubtful  quality,  advanced  his  discovery  of 
margarine  as  the  solution  to  this  problem,  he  little  realized 
what  a  tremendous  upheaval  his  invention  was  destined  to 
achieve,  or  the  staggering  problem  it  would  ultimately 
present  to  civilization.  Certainly  for  many  j^ears  his  butter 
substitute,  contrived  from  animal  fat  and  milk,  was  regarded 
askance  by  the  community  in  general.  It  was  grudgingly 
conceded  to  be  a  possible  food  only  for  the  poorest  of  the 
poor — those  denied  the  opportunity  from  lack  of  means 
to  purchase  butter  of  any  description. 

For  many  years  margarine  was  the  object  of  unprincipled 
prejudice  and  obloquy.  It  struggled  desperately  for  recog- 
nition. Inventive  effort  was  expended  freely  to  render 
the  product  more  and  more  attractive  in  appearance  and 
flavour,  to  attract  all  classes  of  the  community.     Indeed, 

183 


184  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

ingenuity  was  carried  to  such  lengths  as  to  produce  a 
substitute  impossible  of  detection  from  the  genuine  article, 
except  by  the  most  searching  analysis. 

But  the  rejected  of  187 1  has  become  the  indispensable 
of  1919.  The  prevailing  shortage  of  dairying  products, 
confined  not  to  one  single  country  or  even  continent,  but 
common  to  the  whole  world,  has  compelled  the  recognition 
of  the  virtues  of  margarine.  The  alternative  is  to  go  without, 
inasmuch  as  other  edible  fats,  which  might  have  taken  the 
place  of  butter,  have  become  unobtainable.  But  the  British 
public,  which  fought  the  advance  and  claims  of  margarine 
for  nearly  half  a  century  with  a  blind  fury,  and  being  forced 
to  accept  Hobson's  choice,  has  encountered  a  pleasant 
surprise.  The  criticized  butter  substitute  is  found  to  be 
not  so  bad  as  it  has  been  painted.  With  improving  acquaint- 
ance opinion  has  veered  round  and  now  admits,  somewhat 
tardily  perhaps,  that  what  was  once  considered  to  be  only 
the  poor  man's  butter  is,  in  reality,  an  excellent  foodstuff 
in  itself,  and  preferable  to  many  grades  of  the  genuine 
article,  some  of  which  certainly  are  not  above  suspicion. 
To  convey  some  idea  of  the  enormous  hold  which  this  article 
of  food  has  now  secured  upon  the  public  it  may  be  related 
that  the  turnover  of  one  firm,  specializing  in  the  preparation 
of  this  product,  aggregated  no  less  than  £22,000,000 — 
$110,000,000 — during  the  year  1918. 

The  increasing  popularity  of  margarine  speedily  exer- 
cised a  pronounced  reaction  upon  the  soap-manufactur- 
ing industry.  The  fats  which  were  being  utilized  for  the 
production  of  detergents  were  now  demanded  for  conver- 
sion into  foodstuffs.  Hitherto,  the  soap-boiler  has  been 
regarded  as  the  very  lowest  depths  to  which  fatty  waste 
can  possibly  sink.  Thereto  gravitated  all  the  flotsam  and 
jetsam  of  greases  arising  from  other  industries  and  in  ever}' 
stage  of  decay.  But  it  did  not  matter  how  rancid  the 
substance  miglit  be  by  the  time  it  reached  the  soap-manu- 
facturer. Here  a  scarcely  credible  metamorphosis  could 
be  effected,  the  most  repellent  raw  material  being  trans- 
formed into  the  most  attractive  and  fragrant  acquisition  to 
the  toilet.  Little  wonder  therefore  that  fats  condemned 
as  unfit  or  considered  superfluous,  though  perfectly  sound, 
for  other  use  by  man  or  beast,  found  their  way  to  this  mill. 
The  soap-maker  could  absorb  it  all. 


NITROGENOUS   REFUSE  185 

Thus,  it  will  be  seen,  the  soap  trade  is  founded  upon  the 
commercial  utilization  of  waste,  and  this  raw  material  is 
drawn  from  the  three  kingdoms — animal,  vegetable,  and 
fish.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  source  of  the  fat  is  immaterial. 
It  can  be  compelled  to  play  its  allotted  part  in  the  evolution 
of  the  cleansing  agent. 

The  British  nation  is  a  big  consumer  of  soap.  Supplies 
of  animal  fat  could  never  keep  pace  with  the  demand  for 
this  commodity.  So  the  vegetable  kingdom  was  compelled 
to  pay  fat  tribute  to  the  soap-maker,  the  coco-nut,  palm- 
kernel,  and  other  exotic  nut  products  furnishing  the  requisite 
oil  expressed  from  the  fleshy  parts  of  their  distinctive  fruits. 
Then  the  harvests  of  the  sea  were  found  able  to  contribute 
impressive  supplies  of  oils.  These  were  likewise  impressed 
into  service. 

While  the  soap-maker  was  busily  engaged  in  his  task 
another  chemical  wizard  arose.  He  had  discovered  a  means 
of  hardening  or  solidifying  fish  oils,  which  naturally  are 
fluid  except  at  very  low  temperatures.  This  was  a  sensa- 
tional discovery.  Hydrogen  was  the  agent  which  achieved 
the  apparently  impossible,  but  it  did  far  more  than  merely 
to  harden  the  oil.  By  harnessing  the  gas  to  this  duty  the 
peculiarly  pungent  aroma,  and  distinctive  taste  of  the  fish, 
is  completely  removed  from  the  oil. 

This  scientific  achievement  brought  a  further  levy  of 
waste  into  industry.  The  refuse  from  whales  which  had 
hitherto  been  permitted  to  rot,  the  inedible  portions  of 
fish  from  the  canneries,  even  glut  catches  of  oil-yielding  fish 
for  which  no  profitable  market  could  be  found,  were  treated 
to  secure  the  oleaginous  product,  which  was  subsequently 
hardened  and  then  turned  over  to  the  margarine  industry. 
The  hydrogenated  fish  oil  has  been  found  to  furnish  an 
excellent  butter  substitute,  and  one  so  closely  allied  to  the 
genuine  article  in  every  essential  respect  as  to  demand  the 
evolution  of  new  and  more  exacting  methods  to  determine 
its  actual  origin.  It  offers  the  closest  approach  to  butter 
by  synthetic  agency  which  has  ever  been  accomplished 
up  to  this  time. 

The  striking  improvements  recorded  in  the  process  and 
manufacture  of  margarine  arrested  the  attention  of  the 
soap-maker.  He  reflected.  Here  he  was  receiving  fats  of 
every  description  to  turn  them  into  a  product  which  only 


186  MILLIONS   FROM   WASTE 

realized  4d. — 8  cents — a  pound.  Yet  he  could  take  much 
of  that  self-same  raw  material,  and  by  submitting  it  to 
another  treatment  he  could  produce  an  article  which,  as 
a  foodstuff,  was  worth  is. — 25  cents — a  pound.  Why  should 
he  trouble  to  turn  the  fat  into  soap  when  he  could  derive 
three  times  the  money  by  transforming  it  into  an  article 
of  diet  ? 

The  war  provided  him  with  the  opportunity  for  which 
he  had  been  waiting  patiently.  The  deficiency  in  butter 
supplies  had  to  be  remedied  with  margarine,  which  the 
public  would  have  to  accept  willy-nilly.  So  the  soap-maker 
switched  over  all  the  fresh  sound  fats  from  the  soap-pans 
to  the  margarine  mill.  To-day  thousands  of  tons  of  fats 
which  five  years  ago  would  have  been  reduced  to  soap,  this 
being  considered  as  the  only  remaining  utilization  for  the 
waste,  is  being  turned  into  a  food.  The  table  has  triumphed 
over  the  bath. 

The  devout  worshippers  at  the  feet  of  Hygeia  may 
lament  this  inversion.  But  they  need  not  despair.  The 
world  is  not  destined  to  go  short  of  soap.  Two  British 
chemists,  as  a  result  of  deep  thinking,  decided  to  attack 
the  soap  manufacturing  issue  de  novo.  They  were  not 
disposed  to  accept,  at  their  face  value,  all  that  the  text- 
books set  forth  concerning  the  chemistry  of  soap.  They 
were  rather  impressed  by  the  fact  that  the  manufacture 
of  soap  had  undergone  no  fundamental  change  since  the 
first  cake  was  placed  upon  the  market,  which  was  during 
the  days  when  Pepys  was  walking  among  us  taking  notes. 
So  far  as  soap  chemistry  theories  prevailed  the  two  chemists 
in  question  were  Bolshevic  in  their  attitude  towards  them, 
which  was  a  fortunate  circumstance. 

A  cake  of  soap  is  as  familiar  as  a  loaf  of  bread.  Yet 
how  little  do  we  know  about  it,  despite  the  brain-power 
which  has  been  crowded  upon  its  preparation.  As  a  cleansing 
agent  it  is  without  a  rival.  Many  big  industries  would 
have  to  close  their  mills  to-morrow  were  their  supplies  of 
soap  cut  off.  Yet  its  composition  is  very  simple.  It  is 
composed  of  only  two  basic  ingredients — fat,  from  which 
the  glycerine  has  been  extracted,  and  caustic  soda.  No 
matter  how  much  you  may  pay  for  the  article,  be  it  a  penny 
or  half-a-crown  a  tablet,  analyse  it,  and  you  will  find  that 
there  is  the  soda  which  achieves  the  cleansing  effect,  and 


NITROGENOUS   REFUSE  187 

the  fat  which  gives  the  lather.  It  is  quite  possible  a  variety 
of  other  substances  may  be  found  associated  with  the  two 
basic  constituents,  such  as  diatomaceous  earth,  Fuller's 
earth,  farina,  traces  of  disinfectant,  colouring  matter,  cereal 
grains,  perfume,  and  even  water.  But  beyond  rendering 
the  soap  attractive  to  the  eye,  pleasant  to  the  nose,  or  to 
a  certain  degree  germicidal,  these  additional  materials 
perform  no  useful  purpose.  They  are  described  as  fillers, 
but  in  more  candid  language  may  be  set  down,  for  the  most 
part,  as  sheer  adulterants.  Few  articles  lend  themselves 
so  readily  to  adulteration  as  soap.  Was  it  not  an  analyst 
who,  in  the  courts,  described  a  piece  of  soap  submitted  to 
him  for  investigation  as  a  striking  example  of  water  standing 
upright  ! 

Although  we  profess  to  know  so  much  about  soap  and 
its  properties,  we  are  really  labouring  in  ignorance.  No 
chemist  can  tell  you  explicitly  whether  the  cleansing  action 
exercised  is  the  result  of  chemical,  physical,  or  mechanical 
action.  It  is  one  of  those  questions  which  the  seeker  after 
truth  had  better  not  press  home  too  energetically,  because 
the  man  of  brains  would  probably  retort  firmly,  but  gently, 
that  the  interrogation  involves  such  a  complex  reply  as  to 
be  beyond  your  powers  of  comprehension. 

In  our  resolve  to  respect  Hygeia  we  are  most  liberal 
in  our  use  of  soap.  We  are  even  woefully  extravagant, 
although  the  blame  cannot  be  laid  upon  the  shoulders  of 
the  user.  The  water  is  the  criminal.  Did  it  but  rigidly 
adhere  to  the  chemical  formula  of  its  composition,  namely 
H20,  all  would  be  well,  but  unfortunately  it  is  associated 
with  certain  salts  which  it  picks  up  from  the  soil  during 
its  natural  movement.  Water  appears  to  exercise  a  be- 
witching fancy  for  two  salts  in  particular — lime  and  magnesia. 
It  is  the  presence  of  these  salts  which  renders  our  water 
hard.  I  might  mention  that  there  are  other  impurities  in 
the  water  contributing  to  wastage  of  soap,  but  the  two 
mentioned  are  the  worst  offenders  in  this  respect. 

Lime  and  magnesia  have  a  remarkable  affinity  for  fat, 
and  until  their  amorous  inclination  is  satiated  the  soap 
cannot  possibly  settle  down  to  the  duty  for  which  it  is 
employed.  The  moment  the  soap  enters  the  water  a  chemical 
reaction  occurs,  the  lime  or  magnesia,  perhaps  both,  attract- 
ing the  particles  of  fat  until  it  is  impossible  for  another 


188  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

molecule  to  be  taken  up.  The  extent  of  this  attraction 
of  the  salts  for  the  fat,  and  which  the  latter  can  no  more 
resist  than  can  iron  filings  battle  against  the  drawing  power 
of  the  magnet,  may  be  gathered  from  the  state  of  affairs 
prevailing  in  regard  to  the  London  water.  The  particles 
of  lime  contained  in  every  1,000  gallons  of  water  attract 
approximately  15  pounds  of  fat  contained  in  the  soap  before 
permitting  the  latter  to  lather.  Seeing  that  fat  enters  into 
the  composition  of  the  average  soap  to  the  extent  of 
approximately  60  per  cent.,  it  will  be  seen  that  about 
25  per  cent,  of  the  fatty  content  of  the  soap  is  put  out  of 
action  without  performing  any  useful  work. 

The  total  loss  of  soap  incurred  during  the  year  in  London 
alone  through  this  affinity  runs  into  stupendous  figures. 
The  water  consumption  for  washing  purposes  in  the  metro- 
polis, according  to  Mr.  Townsend,  F.C.S.,  is  7,000,000  gallons 
a  day.  Consequently,  at  least  105,000  pounds  of  fat  slip 
down  the  drains  during  the  course  of  every  twenty-four 
hours  without  fulfilling  any  useful  service.  The  value  of 
this  loss,  according  to  the  same  authority,  may  be  set  down 
at  £1,000,000 — $5,000,000 — a  year.  This  represents  sheer 
waste,  because  the  fats  escape  without  extending  a  fraction 
of  benefit  to  any  one.  It  represents  that  section  which 
has  merely  allied  itself  to  the  pernicious  salts  to  form  the 
lime-soap.  From  the  foregoing  one  can  form  some  estimate 
of  the  wastage  of  soap  annually  incurred  throughout  the 
country  from  the  mere  union  of  25  per  cent,  of  the  fat  with 
the  lime- — this  figure  fluctuates  according  to  the  degree  of 
hardness  of  the  water.  Certainly  it  attains  a  figure  which 
baffles  credulit}'. 

Confirmatory  evidence  of  this  waste  is  forthcoming 
from  every  hand-basin,  bath,  and  washing  appliance.  It 
is  revealed  in  the  repulsive-looking  greasy  grey  curds  streak- 
ing the  sides  of  the  vessel,  and  which  the  user  in  ignorance 
generally  dismisses  as  dirt  removed  by  the  soap.  The 
housewife  and  launderer  are  often  perplexed  by  the  yellowish 
tone  which  certain  garments  assume,  and  the  harsh  and 
stickiness  incidental  to  flannel  after  being  washed.  These 
defects  are  directly  due  to  the  lime-soap.  Its  presence 
is  additionally  exasperating  owing  to  its  extreme  tenacity 
and  penetrative  powers,  which  wellnigh  defy  removal, 
except  by  the  aid  of  powerful  agents,  the  use  of  which  is 


NITROGENOUS   REFUSE  189 

to  be  deplored,  because  they  precipitate  further  and  peculiar 
worries  and  adversely  affect  the  fabrics.  In  the  textile 
industries,  more  particularly  the  woollen  trade,  the  lime- 
soap  is  regarded  as  the  greatest  affliction  upon  the  craft. 

The  question  arises  as  to  whether  the  lime  cannot  be 
removed  from  the  water,  or  whether  science  can  evolve  a 
soap  capable  of  hurling  defiance  at  the  lime.  The  solution 
to  the  first-named  suggestion  is  distillation  of  the  water 
before  use,  a  tedious  and  costly  operation,  or  the  subjection 
of  the  water  to  a  softening  process  to  effect  the  removal  of 
the  lime  before  the  soap  be  introduced.  Great  strides  have 
been  recorded  in  this  last-named  field,  but,  unhappily, 
the  question  of  cost  constitutes  an  adverse  factor.  Thus 
the  true  solution  would  seem  to  lie  in  the  preparation  of  a 
soap  capable  of  resisting  the  blandishments  of  the  lime. 

It  was  this  particular  solution  which  the  two  British 
chemists,  to  whom  I  have  alluded,  set  out  to  discover,  but 
many  years  of  patient  labour  in  the  laboratory  was  neces- 
sary to  register  the  first  success.  This  was  due  to  the 
fact  that  they  set  out  upon  quite  an  original  and  unexplored 
line  of  research.  They  recognized  that  the  margarine 
industry  must  develop  into  one  of  the  biggest  industries  of 
the  country,  and  that,  accordingly,  the  tendency  would 
be  to  abandon  the  conversion  of  fats  into  soap  owing  to 
the  heavier  claims  of  the  table,  and  the  more  remunerative 
return  which  would  arise  from  such  an  industrial  diversion. 
They  were  also  aware  of  the  fact  that  in  preparing  the  fats 
for  the  table  a  certain  proportion  of  residue  must  result. 
At  that  time  there  appeared  to  be  no  profitable  field  for  the 
utilization  of  this  waste.  So  they  decided  to  conduct  their 
investigations  along  the  path  which  would  admit  of  this 
refuse  being  employed. 

The  fatty  constituent  decided,  they  cast  around  for 
another  staple  which  was  indispensable  to  the  process  they 
had  definitely  resolved  to  perfect.  For  this  they  required 
protein,  the  governing  principle  being  the  perfection  of  a 
cereal  soap,  the  nitrogenous  compounds  of  which  should 
be  turned  to  cleansing  duty.  Proteins  were  available  in 
infinite  variety,  but  here  again  it  was  realized  that  it  would 
be  wanton  waste  to  use  an  article  likely  to  be  in  request 
to  serve  as  food  for  man  or  beast.  Then  they  discovered 
that   there   were   ample   quantities   of   protein   running   to 


190  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

waste  from  commercial  neglect.  Accordingly,  they  decided 
to  utilize  these  materials.  The  third  constituent  was  the 
soda  which  must  enter  into  the  composition  of  any  and 
every  soap,  but  this  did  not  occasion  the  slightest 
anxiety. 

Equipped  with  these  three  materials  they  set  to  work. 
Experiment  was  tedious,  and  progress  was  slow,  due  to  the 
fact  that  research  was  being  conducted  in  quite  a  new 
and  unknown  field,  absolutely  deficient  of  any  previous 
experience  to  serve  as  a  guide.  The  first  success  recorded 
was  the  preparation  of  a  soap  in  the  form  of  a  meal  or  powder 
coinciding  with  their  ideas.  This  was  submitted  to  the 
most  rigorous  tests,  and  the  results  obtained  were  quite  in 
accordance  with  expectations.  When  this  soap  is  intro- 
duced into  the  water  no  coagulation  of  the  fat  with  the 
lime  occurs.  In  this  way  the  lime  soap  enemy  was  com- 
pletely vanquished.  As  a  supreme  test  sea- water  was 
tried,  with  which  it  was  found  to  lather  as  readily  and  as 
easily  as  when  employed  with  distilled  water. 

The  discovery  represented  a  sensational  achievement. 
It  proved  that  something  was  awry  with  the  existing  theories 
pertaining  to  the  chemistry  of  soap.  Technical  tests  were 
undertaken,  and  they  proved  just  as  startling,  because  effects 
diametrically  opposed  to  standard  theories  were  observed. 
Whereas  ordinary  soap  is  insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble 
in  alcohol,  the  cereal  soap,  so-called  because  of  the  starch 
which  enters  into  its  composition,  is  soluble  in  water,  but 
absolutely  insoluble  in  alcohol.     The  position  is  reversed. 

A  new  era  in  soap  manufacture  was  thus  ushered  in. 
The  discovery  came  as  a  bomb-shell  to  the  soap-making 
world,  and,  because  it  could  not  be  explained  through 
prevailing  long-accepted  chemical  laws  pertaining  to  this 
subject,  it  was  ridiculed  in  certain  quarters.  To  aggravate 
the  situation  chemists,  who  set  out  to  fathom  the  secret  of 
the  new  process  by  rigorous  analysis,  found  themselves 
baffled.  They  could  not  determine  the  bases  employed 
owing  to  the  chemical  reaction  which  had  taken  place 
during  the  preparation  of  the  article,  and  from  the  circum- 
stance that  it  belongs  to  colloidal  chemistry.  To  indicate 
how  completely  the  trade  was  baulked  it  may  be  mentioned 
that  the  chemist  attached  to  one  soap  manufacturer  in  this 
country,  and  who  had  been  requested  to  analyse  a  sample, 


NITROGENOUS   REFUSE  191 

contemptuously  dismissed  the  product  not  as  a  soap,  but 
as  a  filler  ! 

Undaunted  by  the  flood  of  adverse  criticism  which  they 
provoked,  the  inventors  requested  the  industries  to  which 
soap  is  essential,  and  which  were  being  harassed  by  the 
lime-soap  bugbear,  to  subject  the  discovery  to  a  commercial 
test.  They  did  so,  and  were  so  surprised  at  the  results 
obtained  as  to  ask  promptly  for  further  supplies  !  It  not 
only  offered  them  the  means  to  reduce  their  consumption 
of  soap,  but  it  performed  the  desired  functions  more  effica- 
ciously, and  proved  to  be  a  complete  panacea  for  the  many 
ills  which  had  heretofore  afflicted  the  trade.  So  impressed 
were  they  by  what  the  new  detergent  accomplished  that 
they  established  its  use  in  their  works  there  and  then,  and 
to  this  day  have  never  reverted  to  the  article  formerly  used. 

In  the  powder  form  the  application  of  the  cereal  soap 
was  somewhat  restricted.  Accordingly  the  inventors  decided 
to  produce  it  in  the  familiar  tablet  and  bar  form,  to  enable 
a  wider  appeal  to  be  made,  even  to  the  home.  As  events 
proved  it  was  far  easier  to  attain  the  meal  stage  than  to 
pass  therefrom  to  the  solid  cake.  In  fact,  at  one  time  it 
seemed  as  if  this  desired  end  would  never  be  consummated. 
It  was  only  by  dint  of  unflagging  effort  that  success  was 
ultimately  secured,  and  the  soap  in  tablet  and  bar  form 
introduced  to  the  market. 

As  the  manufacture  of  soap  from  waste  vegetable  bases 
represents  something  entirely  new,  so  do  the  actual  methods 
of  production.  The  revolution  is  complete.  In  preparing 
the  conventional  soap  from  10  to  16  days  are  necessary. 
By  the  new  process  the  cereal  soap  can  be  made  in  sixty 
minutes  !  Furthermore,  the  operation  is  clean,  absolutely 
free  from  odour,  and  cold,  no  heat  whatever  being  required, 
except  to  warm  the  factory  during  the  winter  for  the  comfort 
of  the  employees.  The  machinery  necessary  is  also  of  the 
simplest  and  most  inexpensive  character.  Under  these 
conditions  there  is  not  only  a  very  marked  saving  in  time, 
but  of  fuel  and  labour.  In  these  high-pressure  days  wastage 
of  time  is  as  criminal  as  the  wastage  of  material,  and  one 
logically  asks  why  spend  ten  days  in  consummating  a  specific 
end  when  one  hour  will  suffice  for  the  purpose  ? 

The  saving  in  capital  expenditure  is  very  impressive, 
being  at  least  75  per  cent,  below  that  demanded  for  equip- 


192  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

ping  the  conventional  factory.  In  other  words,  £10,000 — 
$50,000 — will  provide  an  installation  capable  of  turning 
out  as  much  cereal  soap  as  could  be  recorded  with  a  plant 
costing  £40,000 — $200,000 — devoted  to  the  orthodox  system. 

The  outstanding  feature  of  the  process  is  the  complete 
absence  of  all  boiling  operations.  The  starch  and  protein- 
yielding  material  are  passed  through  a  mill  to  be  reduced 
to  a  fine  powder  of  the  consistency  of  flour.  This  being  a 
straightforward  milling  operation,  the  machinery  ordinarily 
employed  for  grinding  grain  and  other  foods  may  be  used. 
The  flour  is  then  emptied  into  a  mixing  machine,  which  is 
naught  but  the  familiar  dough-mixer  used  in  the  bakery. 
When  the  mixer  is  set  in  motion  the  caustic  soda  is  admitted 
in  a  fine  controlled  stream.  Directly  the  two  materials 
come  into  contact  the  chemical  reaction  commences,  the 
soda  attacking  the  starch  granules  and  breaking  them  down. 
Evidence  of  the  battle  in  progress  between  the  two  chemicals 
is  betrayed  by  the  emission  of  the  strong  ammonia  fumes, 
which  prove  that  the  nitrogenous  compounds  are  being 
released.  The  admission  of  caustic  soda  is  continued  until 
the  chemical  reaction  is  concluded  and  the  starch  granules 
have  been  completely  broken  up.  As  the  process  is  ad- 
vanced the  vegetable  oil  is  admitted,  the  operation  being 
so  controlled  as  to  yield  a  plastic  mass  of  predetermined 
consistency.  This  is  thoroughly  kneaded  after  the  manner 
of  baker's  dough.  The  subsequent  processes  are  common 
to  those  of  the  ordinary  soap  manufactory,  the  material 
being  passed  successively  through  the  milling,  plodding, 
and  stamping  machines. 

The  raw  materials  for  the  provision  of  the  essential 
protein  are  drawn  from  the  extensive  vegetable  kingdom. 
But  in  no  instance  is  any  material  having  a  claim  upon 
the  community  or  the  animal  world  as  a  possible  food  used 
for  the  purpose.  Dependence  is  placed  rather  upon  the 
waste  incurred  by  the  preparation  of  other  products,  or  of 
materials  which  have  been  condemned  as  useless  for  food 
purposes. 

As  a  case  in  point  it  may  be  mentioned  that  a  grain- 
carrying  ship  was  torpedoed,  sunk,  and,  together  with 
the  cargo,  subsequently  salvaged.  The  retrieved  grain 
was  dried  in  the  anticipation  that  it  might  be  found  suitable 
for    cattle-feeding.       But    the    expectations    were    doomed 


NITROGENOUS   REFUSE  193 

to  disappointment.  The  wheat  had  been  too  completely 
impregnated  with  the  salt  from  the  sea.  No  other  profitable 
use  presenting  itself,  it  was  acquired  for  conversion  into 
soap.  It  was  ground  in  the  usual  manner  and  turned  into 
the  mixer.  The  presence  of  the  salt,  which  had  rendered 
the  grain  useless  even  as  a  cattle  food,  did  not  constitute 
an  adverse  factor.  Had  it  not  been  for  the  cereal  soap 
factory  this  cargo  would  have  had  to  suffer  destruction 
and  have  been  completely  lost  to  the  community,  whereas 
it  was  sold  at  a  remunerative  figure.  Potato  flour  has  like- 
wise been  utilized,  but  has  not  been  widely  exploited  for 
the  simple  reason  that  this  material  constitutes  an  excellent 
foodstuff,  either  for  man  in  the  form  of  farina,  or  for  cattle. 
Maize  has  also  been  used  together  with  such  products  as 
rice,  barley,  oats,  rye,  and  so  on,  but,  except  where  the 
produce  of  this  nature  has  suffered  injury,  it  is  not  turned 
into  soap.  However,  in  those  countries  where  a  heavy 
surplus  of  such  crops  is  encountered  it  would  be  found 
profitable  to  establish  the  cereal  soap  industry  as  a  means 
of  turning  the  glut  to  profitable  advantage. 

The  principle  governing  the  selection  of  the  starch- 
yielding  constituent  is  also  observed  in  regard  to  the  fat 
which  is  necessary.  This  is  drawn  exclusively  from  the 
margarine  factories.  It  is  a  residue  and  at  the  moment 
possesses  no  other  known  marketable  value.  The  ability 
to  turn  this  refuse  into  an  ingredient  for  soap  has  come  as 
a  distinct  relief  to  the  margarine  industry,  which  threatened 
to  be  perplexed  in  the  economical  disposal  of  the  accumula- 
tions. Seeing  that  the  margarine  manufacture  is  progress- 
ing by  leaps  and  bounds,  there  is  not  likely  to  be  any  shortage 
in  connection  with  the  fat  constituent  of  the  cereal  soap. 

Supplies  of  a  cheap  and  useless  albeit  rich  starch  waste 
product  have  also  been  secured  in  illimitable  quantities. 
This  has  materially  simplified  the  task  of  production.  While 
a  certain  proportion  of  this  particular  raw  material  is  secured 
for  the  preparation  of  an  article  of  food,  about  75  per  cent, 
is  discarded  as  waste.  Since  cattle  will  not  eat  it  there 
remains  no  other  field  of  utilization  beyond  the  soap  factory, 
for  which  it  is  eminently  suited.  In  addition  to  the  above- 
mentioned  quantities  ample  supplies  of  this  material  are 
forthcoming,  because  it  is  freely  used  as  ballast  in  ships 
sailing  from  the  corner  of  the  world  in   which  the  plant 

13 


194  MILLIONS   FROM   WASTE 

grows  in  profusion.  Should  the  demand  for  the  food  product 
which  this  substance  yields  increase  it  would  not  exercise 
any  stringency,  because  the  offal  alone  would  be  adequate 
to  satisfy  soap-making  requirements.  In  pre-war  days  this 
waste  cost  only  ios. — $2.50 — per  ton,  but  during  the  war, 
owing  to  freight  inflation,  the  price  rose  to  £10 — $50 — 
per  ton,  while  little  was  carried  in  ballast,  more  profitable 
cargo  being  readily  obtainable.  Consequently  imports 
declined,  only  sufficient  being  brought  into  the  country  to 
furnish  the  needs  of  the  industry  from  which  the  foodstuff 
is  made.  But  the  vegetable  world  is  wide,  and  so  it  is  by 
no  means  a  difficult  problem  to  satisfy  requirements  for 
this  new  industry,  even  in  regard  to  starch-yielding  wastes. 
The  only  other  essential  ingredient  is  soda.  As  enormous 
quantities  of  this  article  are  manufactured  in  this  country 
supplies  thereof  are  readily  assured  and  at  an  attractive 
figure. 

There  is  one  feature  concerning  this  conversion  of 
vegetable  wastes  into  soap  which  deserves  mention.  Should 
all  familiar  starch-yielding  products  become  unobtainable, 
a  remote  contingency,  or  attain  an  excessive  figure,  manu- 
facture need  not  be  suspended.  As  a  last  extremity  sawdust 
can  be  utilized  as  the  protein  base.  The  possibility  of  turning 
sawdust  into  soap  constitutes  something  distinctly  new  and 
novel  to  the  industry,  but  the  apparently  impossible  is 
readily  feasible  under  the  process  described.  Normally  such 
an  expedient  would  not  find  favour,  inasmuch  as  certain 
difficulty  is  experienced  in  the  complete  subjugation,  or 
elimination,  of  the  fibre  which  is  exceedingly  resistant  to 
the  breaking-up  action  resulting  from  milling  and  the 
chemical  reaction.  Nevertheless,  the  circumstance  that 
sawdust  can  be  used  in  this  connection  opens  up  vast 
possibilities,  and  represents  an  opportunity  for  inventive 
effort  in  the  perfection  of  simple  and  completely  effective 
means  to  overcome  the  fibre  difficult}'. 

So  far  as  industry  is  concerned  the  use  of  nitrogenous 
and  oil  wastes  in  the  form  of  soap  has  enabled  startling 
economies  to  be  effected.  In  the  woollen  industry  alone 
the  saving  in  the  soap-bill  ranges  from  20  per  cent,  upwards, 
as  compared  with  other  soaps  which  have  been  used,  while 
the  silk  and  cotton  crafts  can  point  to  like  economies.  The 
successful  subjugation  of  the  lime-soap  fiend  is  beneficially 


NITROGENOUS   REFUSE  195 

reflected  in  other  directions.  The  effluents  from  the  fac- 
tories are  conducted  into  the  local  drainage  systems.  The 
presence  of  the  lime-soap  in  the  drains  provokes  a  host  of 
troubles,  such  as  clogging  of  the  pipes  and  the  fouling  of 
traps  and  gullies,  the  curds  proving  exasperatingly  tenacious 
and  defying  ready  removal  by  ordinary  flushing  measures. 
Furthermore,  the  sludge  reclaimed  from  the  sewage,  if 
contaminated  by  lime-soap,  suffers  material  depreciation 
as  a  fertilizing  agent  because  the  grease,  which  is  eventually 
released  from  the  lime,  tends  to  clog  the  soil. 

But  the  most  impressive  fact  to  the  ordinary  user,  both 
domestic  and  industrial,  is  the  opportunity  to  reduce  the 
wastage  of  soap.  The  fat  content  of  the  cereal  soap  is  50 
per  cent,  less  than  that  of  the  familiar  article,  and  the  whole 
of  this  is  free  to  emulsify,  from  its  refusal  to  coagulate  with 
the  lime  in  the  water.  Moreover,  it  contains  two  cleansing 
agents — the  soda  and  the  nitrogenous  compounds — whereas 
the  rival  carries  only  one — the  soda.  Therefore  it  is  not 
surprising  to  learn  that  in  actual  practice  one  pound  of 
cereal  soap  will  go  as  far,  and  do  as  much  useful  work,  as 
two  pounds  of  the  ordinary  soap.  The  ability  to  make  a 
lather  in  sea-water  is  another  distinct  advantage  which 
has  been  responsible  for  the  widespread  use  of  this  commodity 
in  the  Royal  Navy  and  mercantile  marine. 

Applied  to  London,  the  avoidance  of  soap-waste  is 
certainly  startling.  It  not  only  indicates  how  we  can 
retrieve  the  £1,000,000 — $5,000,000 — at  present  escaping 
down  the  drains  during  the  year,  but  the  fat  thus  saved 
may  be  turned  to  more  valuable  account.  The  soap  con- 
tributing to  this  gross  loss  is  made  from  the  very  material 
possessing  decided  dietetic  value.  Therefore,  by  the  law 
of  economics,  it  should  be  diverted  from  its  present  use, 
admirable  though  it  be  to  fulfil  the  claims  of  cleanliness, 
to  the  more  vital  application,  especially  in  these  days  of 
stress  and  shortage.  The  table  must  take  precedence  over 
the  bath. 


CHAPTER   XIII 

TURNING   OLD   OIL   INTO   NEW 

Oil  is  the  blood  of  industry.  Do  we  ever  pause  to  reflect 
as  to  what  would  happen  if  we  were  suddenly  to  be  deprived 
of  our  supplies  of  this  commodity  ?  Do  we  realize  that 
without  oil  every  machine  would  instantly  be  condemned 
to  idleness,  that  our  clocks  would  stop,  and  that  it  would 
be  impossible  for  a  train,  steamship,  tram,  or  omnibus  to 
move  a  yard  ?  The  probability  is  that  we  have  never 
given  a  thought  to  the  subject,  otherwise  we  should 
scarcely  be  so  extravagant  in  our  use  of  the  article.  Cer- 
tainly we  would  not  hesitate  to  expend  appreciable  effort 
in  the  recovery  of  as  much  of  the  waste  as  possible  for 
further  use. 

Britain's  normal  importations  of  lubricating  oil  are  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  68,000,000  gallons  a  year,  and  they 
cost  us  a  round  £2,500,000 — $12,500,000.  The  tendency 
in  regard  to  consumption  is  upwards  owing  to  our  enhanced 
industrial  activity,  so  that  we  are  becoming  more  and  more 
dependent  upon  extraneous  sources  of  supply  for  our 
requirements. 

But  the  wastage  is  colossal.  Rags  and  cotton  waste, 
after  becoming  so  soddened  with  oil  as  to  be  incapable  of 
absorbing  another  drop,  are  discarded  without  compunc- 
tion. There  is  scarcely  a  workshop,  factory  or  office  in 
the  country  which  cannot  point  to  improvidence  in  this 
direction.  Such  absence  of  thought  is  deplorable  for  more 
reasons  than  one.  Not  only  is  the  oil,  which  might  be 
recovered,  irretrievably  lost,  but  the  very  absorbent  which 
from  its  textile  nature  might  prove  of  distinct  value  for 
other   applications    shares   a   similar   fate.      Were   only   50 

per  cent,  of  the  oil  wasted  in  this  country  during  the  course 

1% 


TURNING   OLD    OIL   INTO  NEW  197 

of  the  year  recovered,  it  would  be  possible  to  reduce  our 
imports  to  a  very  pronounced  degree.  The  reclaimed  oil 
might  not  be  of  any  value  for  its  avowed  purpose,  but  it 
must  be  remembered  that  lubrication  does  not  constitute 
the  one  and  only  purpose  to  which  oil  can  be  applied. 

The  remarkable  development  of  mechanical  traction 
upon  our  highroads  has  been  responsible  to  a  marked  degree 
for  our  increased  consumption  of  this  commoditjf,  and  this 
is  the  very  field  in  which  the  greatest  losses  are  incurred. 
There  are  thousands  of  garages  scattered  over  the  country. 
Many  are  of  unpretentious  calibre,  but  even  the  smallest  of 
these  establishments  contributes  its  quota  to  the  oil  wastage 
issue.  In  cleaning  operations  oil  is  drawn  off  from  engine 
crank-chambers  and  gear-boxes  to  run  to  waste.  Rags 
are  used  for  wiping  and  cleaning  to  be  perfunctorily  thrown 
away  or  burned  when  they  have  become  too  saturated  for 
further  use.  The  private  motor-owner  is  probably  as 
pronounced  a  contributory  source  of  waste  as  the  small 
garage,  because  he,  too,  is  prodigal  in  his  use  of  oil  in  every 
direction,  and  scarcely  ever  gives  a  thought  to  the  retention 
of  the  waste  for  treatment  to  recover  the  oil  and  to  release 
the  rag  for  other  duty,  even  if  it  be  only  for  making  paper. 

At  the  moment  the  losses  in  this  direction  may  not  be 
so  heavy  as  they  have  been  in  the  past,  for  the  simple  reason 
that  oil,  in  common  with  other  commodities  and  in  compli- 
ance with  the  inexorable  law  of  supply  and  demand,  has 
become  more  expensive.  As  the  price  rises  the  tendency 
to  be  sparing  and  careful  becomes  more  marked,  which 
only  serves  to  prove  that  cheapness  is  the  primary  incentive 
to  waste. 

Wherever  machinery  has  to  be  kept  steadily  and  rhyth- 
mically moving  oil  is  indispensable,  so  that  it  is  not  a  difficult 
matter,  when  we  recall  the  immense  quantity  of  machinery 
which  is  kept  running  in  these  islands  to  maintain  our  indus- 
tries, and  to  furnish  our  homes  with  such  amenities  as 
water,  gas,  and  electricity,  to  recognize  that  our  consumption 
of  this  article  must  necessarily  run  into  huge  figures.  Our 
imports  do  not  extend  the  true  index  to  our  dependence 
upon  this  article,  because  appreciable  quantities  thereof 
are  derived  from  domestic  sources  of  supply,  such  as  coal 
and  shales. 

Machinery   is   insatiable   in   its   hunger   for   oil.      This 


198  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

circumstance,  combined  with  the  increasing  price  of  the 
article,  has  been  responsible  for  the  display  of  striking 
fruitful  thought  and  experiment  in  the  discovery  of  effective 
substitutes.  This  is  particularly  noticeable  in  our  machine- 
shops.  A  lubricating  agent  must  be  utilized  to  facilitate 
the  cutting  of  metals.  Oil  is  admittedly  the  most  efficient 
and  best  suited  for  the  purpose,  but  many  excellent  com- 
pounds have  been  evolved  to  consummate  the  desired  end 
and  to  conspicuous  advantage.  In  one  machine-shop  the 
consumption  of  oil  by  the  large  automatic  tools  became  so 
heavy  as  to  prompt  experiment.  Many  expedients  were 
evolved  and  submitted  to  practical  test,  but  they  failed 
from  some  peculiar  cause  or  other.  However,  perseverance 
brought  its  due  reward.  A  substitute  at  last  was  found, 
with  the  result  that  oil  for  cutting  was  abandoned.  By  the 
change  over  the  firm  in  question  succeeded  in  effecting  a 
saving  of  £30 — $150 — per  month  on  each  large  automatic 
machine  it  had  in  use  by  the  supercession  of  oil  for  cutting. 

Doubtless  opportunities  for  substitutes  still  exist  in 
many  other  directions,  but  commercial  rivalry  under  normal 
conditions,  with  enhanced  prices  prevailing  in  regard  to 
costs  of  production,  has  not  yet  been  sufficiently  encoun- 
tered to  compel  the  use  of  the  substitute  in  preference  to 
the  ostensible  staple  to  secure  manufacturing  economies. 
But  changes  will,  and  must  of  necessity,  be  recorded  as 
the  struggle  for  trade  develops. 

In  order  to  encourage  the  more  economical  use  of  oil 
in  industry  many  interesting  and  to  a  certain  degree  efficient 
devices  have  been  introduced.  But  for  the  most  part  these 
apparatus  are  devoted  to  the  filtering  of  what  may  be 
described  as  dirty  free  oil.  They  scarcely  venture  beyond 
the  removal  of  whatever  impurities  may  be  associated 
with  the  product  in  the  suspensory  form.  They  do  not 
attempt  to  reclaim  waste  oil.  Such  timid  treatment  is 
readily  explicable.  Oil  is  a  somewhat  sensitive  product. 
Its  inherent  qualities  may  be  easily  impaired.  For  example, 
oil  prepared  essentially  for  lubricating  purposes  must  be 
possessed  of  specific  qualities,  of  which  viscosity  is  one  and 
the  most  important.  Then  the  requirements  of  lubricating 
oil  fluctuate  so  widely.  An  oil  designed  for  use  with  a 
high-speed  engine,  such  as  the  petrol  motor,  is  not  adapted 
to    the   lubrication   of   a    slow-moving   steam   engine.     Yet 


TURNING  OLD   OIL   INTO  NEW  199 

the  depreciation  of  one  single  quality  in  any  one  grade  is 
adequate  to  render  the  oil  unsuited  to  the  purpose  for  which 
it  has  been  specially  prepared. 

The  consumption  of  lubricating  oil  by  the  authorities 
during  the  war  ran  into  imposing  figures,  and  the  liability 
to  waste  was  proportionate  to  the  consumption.  Aeroplane 
engines  and  lorry  motors,  together  with  their  auxiliary 
gearing,  were  in  a  constant  condition  of  overhaul.  Every 
time  an  engine  or  gearbox  had  to  be  dismantled  many 
gallons  of  oil  had  to  be  drawn  off.  Consequently  the  handling 
of  this  enormous  quantity  of  material  to  frustrate  waste 
demanded  special  consideration,  inasmuch  as  the  oil  could 
not  be  put  back  into  the  machinery  after  the  latter  had 
been  reassembled.  The  authorities  solved  the  problem 
by  the  perfection  of  an  organization  for  the  collection  of 
this  oil,  which  was  returned  to  the  oil-refinery  to  be 
re-conditioned,  that  is  to  be  cleaned  thoroughly  and  to  have 
its  original  properties  restored.  By  the  observance  of  this 
practice  of  turning  old  oil  into  new  the  country  was  saved 
huge  sums. 

But  there  is  a  vast  difference  between  official  and  civil 
conditions.  So  far  as  the  former  is  concerned  it  was  a 
comparatively  simple  matter  to  introduce  an  efficient  organ- 
ization to  cope  with  the  problem,  while  the  waste  oil  was 
recovered  in  bulk,  the  hospitals  for  treating  the  engines 
of  the  aeroplanes  and  motor  vehicles  being  centralized. 
It  is  the  degree  to  which  facilities  for  satisfying  the  civil 
demand  are  scattered  which  renders  collection  and  handling 
of  the  waste  along  inexpensive  lines  so  perplexing.  It 
might  be  satisfactorily  overcome  if  each  garage  and  private 
owner  undertook  to  maintain  a  waste-bin  and  to  commit 
all  oil-soddened  rags  thereto  for  periodical  collection  by 
a  centralized  authority,  either  municipal  or  private.  The 
waste  would  be  obtainable  at  a  low  figure,  possibly  free, 
inasmuch  as  the  majority  of  garage  owners  would  only  be 
too  glad  to  be  rid  of  it.  Possibly  it  would  be  found  profit- 
able to  strike  a  bargain  along  the  lines  of  free  waste  in 
return  for  the  de-oiled  rags,  particularly  if  they  were  dusters 
or  cloths.  In  this  event  the  waste  oil  exploiter  would  only 
be  called  upon  to  incur  the  expense  of  collection  and  the 
treatment  of  the  spoil.  The  return  of  the  cloths  would 
not  entail  further  expense,  because  the}'  could  be  returned 


200  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

in  exchange  for  another  consignment  of  waste.  The  vehicle 
would  have  to  make  the  journey  in  any  event,  and  it  might 
just  as  well  make  the  outward  trip  laden  as  empty.  It  is 
quite  possible,  moreover,  that  the  garage  would  be  readily 
disposed  to  pay  a  slight  charge  for  the  cleaning  of  this 
material,  particularly  of  cloths,  so  long  as  the  sum  was 
attractively  below  the  price  ruling  for  new  supplies  of  the 
article.  To  the  waste  exploiter  the  value  of  the  oil  recovered 
should  be  adequate  to  defray  all  expenses  of  collection  and 
treatment,  and  then  leave  a  handsome  profit  capable  of 
accretion  from  the  disposal  of  the  cleaned  rags,  which  the 
garage  did  not  require,  for  paper-making.  It  is  merely 
a  question  of  enterprise  and  organization,  and  in  a  large 
centre  could  be  rendered  a  highly  attractive  and  profitable 
venture. 

This  fact  is  borne  out  by  the  experience  of  private  firms. 
Of  course,  it  is  essential  that  the  volume  of  spoil  handled 
should  be  of  sufficient  bulk  to  keep  the  plant  installed  for 
the  reclamation  of  the  oil  going  to  its  full  capacity,  or  to 
one  approaching  the  maximum.  This  is  possible  in  the 
case  of  a  large  private  company,  such  as  a  railway,  electric- 
generating  station,  or  even  industrial  plant. 

One  of  the  largest  motor  omnibus  companies  in  the 
world  was  induced  to  consider  the  possibilities  of  this  issue, 
and  finally  was  induced  to  make  the  experiment.  The 
"  Iwel  "  plant  in  question  was  designed  to  turn  out  6  tons 
of  clean  dry  rags  per  week.  This  may  seem  to  be  an 
enormous  quantity  to  accumulate  during  a  period  of  seven 
days,  but  it  must  be  pointed  out  that  the  company  in 
question  maintains  2,000  to  3,000  public  vehicles  upon  the 
roads,  as  well  as  several  garages  and  repair  shops. 

The  first  three  months'  experience  served  to  bring  home 
the  economic  advantages  accruing  from  the  scientific 
exploitation  of  this  form  of  waste.  During  this  brief  period 
the  company  reclaimed  67  tons  of  rags  for  further  use,  the 
value  of  which  at  the  time  was  set  down  at  £1,007  7s-  I(^- 
— over  $5,000 — while  from  this  waste  4,080  gallons  of  oil, 
valued  at  £59  10s. — $297.50 — were  recovered.  Here  was 
a  distinct  gross  saving  of  £1,066  17s.  id. — $5,334 — which 
figure  was  increased  to  £1,489  15s.  7d. — $7,449 — on  the 
credit  side  by  the  delivery  of  new  rags  to  depots  valued  at 
£419  12s.  6d. — $2,098 — and  the  sale  of  small  rags  unsuited 


TURNING  OLD   OIL   INTO   NEW  201 

to  further  work  for  £3  6s. — $16.50.  On  the  debit  side  the 
heaviest  expenses  were  incurred  in  connection  with  the 
purchase  of  new  rags,  valued  at  £405  12s.  o,d. — $2,028, 
cartage  of  the  waste  £152  17s.  iod. — $764.44,  wages  and 
salaries  £157  15s.  id. — $788.74,  and  coal  £105  os.  nd. — 
$525.22.  The  total  outgoings  amounted  to  £1,038  16s.  7d. 
—  $5,194.14,  which  left  a  balance  of  £450  19s. — $2,254.72 — 
actual  saving  recorded  by  the  treatment  of  the  waste.  So 
far  as  the  reclaimed  oil  was  concerned,  while  this  was 
unsuited  to  further  utilization  in  its  original  province,  it 
was  found  to  form  an  excellent  fuel  for  the  operation  of  the 
Diesel  engines,  and  consequently  reduced  the  fuel  bill  on 
this  account  by  a  corresponding  amount. 

Another  illuminating  instance  of  the  value  of  such  waste 
is  afforded  by  the  working  account  for  one  year,  furnished 
by  one  of  the  foremost  British  chemical  manufacturers. 
The  plant  acquired  in  this  instance  comprised  two  turbine 
centrifugal  separators,  one  washing  machine,  and  one 
drying  cabinet,  the  cost  of  which  complete  was  £210 — 
$1,050.  In  the  course  of  the  twelve  months  350,000  wiping 
and  other  cloths  were  treated,  and  the  losses  incurred  there- 
with were  so  slender  as  to  demand  renewals  to  the  extent 
of  only  15,000  new  cloths,  which,  at  2s.  i|d. — 52.5  cents — 
per  dozen  came  out  at  £131  10s.  2|d. — about  $657.55. 
The  heaviest  item  in  the  operating  account  was  wages — 
£132  12s.  ($663).  Other  expenditure,  including  repairs, 
fuel,  and  interest  on  the  first  cost  of  plant,  brought  the 
total  to  £324  2s.  2|d. — $1,620.55.  From  the  treatment  of 
the  350,000  cloths  125  casks,  or  5,000  gallons,  of  oil  were 
recovered,  which,  at  iod. — 20  cents — per  gallon,  represented 
£208  6s.  8d. — $1,041.64.  The  saving  in  cotton  waste  due 
to  the  soiled  cloths  being  rendered  available  for  further 
duty,  set  down  at  392  lb.  at  £4  4s. —  $21 — per  week,  came 
out  at  £218  8s. — $1,092.  Thus  the  total  value  of  the  waste 
recovered  was  £426  14s.  8d. —  $2,133.64,  leaving  a  saving, 
after  deducting  expenditure,  of  £102  12s.  5|d. — $533.11. 
The  results  of  the  year's  working,  therefore,  enabled  the 
firm  to  recoup  approximately  50  per  cent,  of  its  original 
outlay,  while  the  value  of  the  oil  recovered  was  only  a  little 
below  the  cost  of  the  plant.  The  saving  in  cotton-waste 
— material  which  otherwise  would  have  had  to  be  provided — 
actually  exceeded  the  capital  outlay  upon  the  plant, 


202  MILLIONS  FROM   WASTE 

The  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  Railway  Company,  in 
consonance  with  the  general  practice,  formerly  utilized 
cotton-waste  in  its  works  for  cleaning  purposes.  In  these 
operations  the  material  becomes  saturated  with  ordinary 
lubricating,  cylinder,  and  other  oils,  as  well  as  grease  from 
rubbing  down  the  locomotives  and  parts.  Some  years 
ago  it  decided  to  abandon  cotton-waste  in  lieu  of  sponge 
cloths,  at  the  same  time  installing  a  plant  for  the  recovery 
of  the  oil  and  grease  from  the  soiled  materials.  During  the 
year  these  sponge  cloths  are  passed  over  and  over  again 
through  the  cleansing  process,  the  operations  being  equiva- 
lent to  the  treatment  of  6,500,000  cloths,  and  in  this  manner 
approximately  45,000  to  56,000  gallons  of  oil  are  reclaimed. 

It  does  not  matter  to  what  phase  of  industry  one  turns, 
a  certain  amount  of  oil  is  possible  of  reclamation  from  the 
waste  employed  in  connection  with  the  conduct  of  the  work. 
The  volume  recoverable  naturally  varies  widely  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  trade  pursued,  and  in  some  instances 
the  individual  yield  may  appear  to  be  insignificant.  But, 
during  the  course  of  the  year,  even  in  a  small  shop,  the 
figure  is  certain  to  become  impressive  and  well  worth  the 
efforts  expended,  as  well  as  the  money  invested  in 
the  requisite  plant,  while,  if  the  one  instance  be  multiplied 
by  the  number  of  other  similar  establishments  distributed 
throughout  the  country,  the  aggregate  must  necessarily 
be  formidable.  The  table  opposite  furnishes  a  few 
actual  results  in  the  selection  of  industries  specified. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  yield  varies  widely  according 
to  the  industry  concerned,  but  in  every  instance  it  will 
be  observed  that  the  figure  is  such  as  to  render  the  process 
profitable,  not  only  on  account  of  the  oil  thus  procured, 
but  from  the  release  of  the  waste  or  other  absorbent  for  a 
further  spell  of  useful  service.  If  the  waste,  or  other  material, 
has  been  employed  only  for  wiping  parts,  or  mopping  up 
free  oil,  passage  through  the  oil  separator  will  suffice,  but 
if  it  has  been  utilized  for  general  work  and  has  become 
badly  soiled,  it  requires  washing.  The  sludge  resulting 
from  this  process  is  subsequently  passed  through  the  oil- 
recovery  plant  instead  of  being  thrown  away,  the  reclamation 
thus  being  complete,  while  the  rags  or  other  textiles  are 
passed  through  cabinets  or  other  suitable  facilities  to  be 
dried  quickly. 


TURNING   OLD   OIL   INTO   NEW 


203 


Industry. 

Material  Treated. 

Quantity. 

Oil  Re- 
covered. 

Per  Cent. 

Pints. 

Agricultural   machinery 

Cotton-waste 

1 8  lb. 

975 

54-l6 

Biscuit  manufacture  . . 

Cotton-waste1 

iolb. 

4 

40 

Colliery            . .          . .  < 

Cotton-waste1 

3975  lb- 

63 

158-69 

Cotton-waste3 

i5' 75  lb. 

IO 

57*5 

Cycle  and  parts           . .  -j 

Rags 

Sponge  cloths 

H2  lb. 
i  gross 

80 

8 

71-42 

Foundry- 

Cotton -waste 

13  lb. 

11-25 

86-53 

Machine-tool    manufac- 

ture 

Cotton-waste 

8-25  lb. 

275 

33*33 

Motor-car         . .          . .  -1 

Cotton-waste 
Rags 

1 6  lb. 
12  lb. 

1-25 
275 

7-81 
22-91 

Railway            . .          .  .< 

Cotton-waste 
Cotton -waste4 

14  lb. 
io  lb. 

2-625 
13 

1375 
130 

Steel  and  iron-works  . .  ■< 

Cotton-waste 
Mutton  cloths 

8-25  lb. 
2  lb. 

9-25 
I-5 

112-12 

75 

Tramway 

Cotton-waste 

13  lb. 

1-25 

9-61 

Wood  screw  manufacture 

Cotton-waste 

2i  lb. 

1375 

65-47 

1  From  engine-room. 
*  From  blast-furnaces. 


3  From  power-station. 

4  Axle-box  waste. 


But  so  far  as  industrial  operations  are  concerned  oil 
reclamation  is  by  no  means  confined  to  the  treatment  of 
the  waste  and  cloths.  As  already  mentioned,  oil  is  freely 
used  in  working  metal,  acting  as  the  lubricant  to  the  cutting 
tool.  While  trough  facilities  are  provided  to  catch  the 
oil  to  enable  it  to  be  used  again,  much  clings  to  the  turnings 
and  other  refuse.  Even  where  works  are  not  equipped 
with  oil-recovery  apparatus  of  some  description  or  another 
an  attempt  to  secure  a  proportion  of  what  would  otherwise 
be  lost  is  made.  The  turnings  are  permitted  to  drain.  The 
quantity  of  oil  recovered  in  this  manner,  however,  is  very 
low.  Certainly  it  does  not  exceed  40  per  cent.,  because 
the  oil  clings  somewhat  readily  and  freely  to  the  metallic 
surface. 

Accordingly,  in  the  best  equipped  factories,  the  practice 
is  to  submit  the  turnings  to  treatment.  It  is  passed  through 
the  extractors  and  in  this  way  at  least  all  but  10  per  cent, 
of  the  oil  is  recovered.  When  the  solvent  extraction  process 
is  exploited  the  recovery  can  be  carried  as  far  as  99  per 
cent.,  the   fraction  resisting  recovery  thus  being  extremely 


204  MILLIONS  FROM  WASTE 

small.  The  yield  obtainable  from  such  metallic  residue 
from  the  machines  is  certainly  sufficient  to  justify  the 
treatment.  In  one  shop,  devoted  to  the  manufacture  of 
cycles  and  cycle  parts,  the  oil  recovery  averaged  22  pints 
per  112  lb.  of  turnings  treated.  In  another  instance, 
where  the  production  of  agricultural  machinery  is  con- 
ducted, 26  lb.  of  steel  turnings  and  23  lb.  9  oz.  of  brass 
turnings  yielded  175  and  i"i25  pints  of  oil  respectively. 
One  motor-car  manufacturing  firm  recovers  1,200  gallons  of 
cutting  oil  from  the  treatment  of  its  weekly  accumulation 
of  turnings.  This  becomes  available  for  re-use,  and  the 
absolute  loss  recorded  is  only  about  10  per  cent.  In  another 
instance,  2,440  gallons  of  oil  were  recovered  from  the  treat- 
ment of  41  tons  17  cwt.  of  metal  turnings,  900  lb.  of  rags, 
and  19,300  sponge  cloths  in  the  course  of  six  months. 

Another  interesting  experience  in  this  field  is  worthy 
of  record.  It  was  found  that  the  sawdust  in  the  vicinity 
of  certain  machines,  provided  as  an  absorbent,  became 
somewhat  heavily  charged  with  oil  splashed  and  other- 
wise discharged  from  the  machines.  The  presence  of  the 
oil-soaked  refuse  on  the  floor  was  construed  as  being  a 
menace  to  the  establishment,  the  hazard  of  fire  being 
regarded  as  thereby  increased.  Accordingly,  the  floor  was 
swept  more  frequently  than  otherwise  would  have  been 
the  case,  the  refuse  being  promptly  shovelled  into  the  furnace 
merely  to  secure  its  prompt  and  complete  riddance.  The 
sawdust  was  examined  by  a  waste  expert  upon  the  occasion 
of  a  visit  to  the  works,  and  he  suggested,  from  the  fact  that 
oil  oozed  from  a  handful  of  the  sawdust  when  squeezed,  that 
the  waste  should  be  subjected  to  the  "  Iwel  "  oil-reclamation 
process,  instead  of  being  burned.  The  recommendation 
was  followed,  and  the  volume  of  oil  thus  recovered  was 
found  to  be  of  surprising  quantity.  In  fact,  its  value  more 
than  defrayed  the  cost  of  the  small  plant  which  was  in- 
stalled to  treat  it.  So  effectively  was  the  sawdust  found 
to  be  cleaned  of  the  oil  as  to  be  redistributed  time  after 
time  upon  the  floor  around  the  machines.  In  this  instance 
destruction  of  the  oil-soaked  refuse  by  fire  represented  a 
material  loss  in  more  senses  than  one. 

While  it  is  only  within  the  past  few  years  that  the  possi- 
bility of  reclaiming  oil  from  cotton-waste  has  aroused  such 
earnest  attention,  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  many  firms 


TURNING   OLD   OIL   INTO  NEW  205 

sought  to  reduce  their  expenditure  by  submitting  their 
cloths  and  waste  to  a  laundrying  process.  Of  course,  by 
this  practice  the  textiles  were  recovered,  but  the  oil  was 
lost,  while  material  expense  was  incurred  in  the  conduct 
of  the  laundrying  operations  and  the  acquisition  of  suitable 
detergents.  An  interesting  record  of  the  cost  of  the  respec- 
tive processes  is  forthcoming  from  a  certain  firm  in  the 
South  of  England.  It  refers  to  two  years'  operations,  the 
one  referring  to  straight  laundrying  of  the  sponge  cloths 
and  waste,  while  the  other  refers  to  the  latest  method  of 
dealing  with  such  materials.  Under  the  former  regime 
the  cost  for  the  year  was  £219  9s.  2d. — $1,097.28.  The 
heaviest  items  were  for  the  purchase  of  sponge  cloths  and 
waste,  the  figures  for  which  were  £62  17s.  and  £137 — 
$314.25  and  $685 — respectively.  The  cost  of  washing 
the  dirty  cloths  at   7s.    3d. — $1.78 — per  week  was  £18  17s. 

—  $94.25. 

The  firm  then  acquired  a  small  oil  reclamation  and 
cloths-cleaning  plant  at  a  cost  of  £125 — $625.  During  the 
year,  under  the  new  conditions,  the  expenditure  on  account 
of  sponge  cloths  and  waste  was  £25  16s.  and  £85  15s. — 
$129  and  $428.75 — respectively,  but,  for  purposes  of 
comparison,  one-fifth  was  added  to  each  item  to  counteract 
the  slackness  encountered,  and  to  bring  the  subject  more 
in  line  with  the  experience  of  the  previous  year.  But  even 
after  making  these  allowances  the  total  expenditure  for 
these  two  articles  came  out  at  only  £133  17s.  2d. — $669.28 
— against  £199  17s. — $999.25 — when  the  textiles  were 
laundered.  Inclusive  of  all  expenditure,  including  wages, 
washing  materials,  power,  and  interest  at  5  per  cent,  upon 
the  first  cost  of  the  plant,  the  total  cost  was  £199  4s.  4d. 

—  $996.8 — as  compared  with  £219  9s.  2d. —  $1,097.28 — 
for  the  previous  year — a  saving  of  £20  4s.  iod. — $101.20. 
But  under  the  new  system  716  gallons  of  oil,  totally  lost 
under  the  previous  method,  were  reclaimed,  which  repre- 
sented £11  15s. — $58.75,  so  that  the  total  saving  was 
£31  19s.  iod. —  $159.98,  representing  approximately  25 
per  cent,  on  the  capital  outlay  incurred  for  the  installation 
of  the  plant. 

In  view  of  the  economies  possible  from  the  practice  of 
such  a  system  as  I  have  described,  it  is  somewhat  surprising 
that    manufacturing   firms   should   hesitate   to   include    an 


206  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

oil-reclamation  plant  in  the  equipment  of  their  establish- 
ments. It  is  likewise  somewhat  difficult  to  bring  home  to 
them  what  really  can  be  achieved  by  the  scientific  treatment 
of  their  waste.  In  order  to  popularize  the  practice,  and  to 
further  the  observance  of  economies  which  are  inseparable 
from  industrial  operations  under  contemporary  conditions, 
more  than  one  British  firm  is  prepared  to  advance  an 
attractive  commercial  proposal.  This  is  that  the  equipment 
should  be  installed  and  its  cost  defrayed  out  of  the  actual 
savings  effected.  Thus,  in  the  case  of  the  installation  to 
which  I  have  made  reference,  and  which  deals  with  the 
rags  accumulating  from  the  maintenance  of  public  service 
vehicles,  such  a  procedure  was  initiated.  The  capital 
expenditure  involved  in  this  instance  was  approximately 
£2,200 — $11,000,  but  as  the  plant  recorded  a  net  saving 
of  £450 — $2,250 — as  a  result  of  three  months'  work,  which 
is  equivalent  to  £1,800 — $9,000 — a  year,  it  should  be  able 
to  defray  the  whole  of  the  initial  outlay  within  about  16 
months.  However,  all  things  being  equal,  it  is  computed 
that  a  reclamation  plant  submitted  to  the  work  which  I 
have  described  should  pay  for  itself  within  two  years. 
Experience  serves  to  support  this  contention,  although, 
under  the  conditions  which  at  present  prevail,  the  possi- 
bility is  that  such  a  gratifying  achievement  would  be  fulfilled 
within  a  shorter  period 


CHAPTER  XIV 

BY-PRODUCTS   FROM  THE   WASTE-BIN 

The  exploitation  of  waste  presents  grand  opportunities  for 
pioneer  research  and  investigation,  not  only  to  the  chemist, 
but  also  to  the  layman  who  is  fruitful  of  thought.  Tn  the 
praiseworthy  determination  to  turn  residues  to  advantage 
there  is  a  tendency  to  follow  the  path  of  least  resistance, 
and  to  apply  them  to  the  fields  which  most  readily  suggest 
themselves.  This  policy  is  regrettable.  The  true  scientific 
solution  to  the  problem  lies  not  so  much  in  the  conversion 
of  a  refuse  into  a  useful  article,  as  the  discovery  of  the  precise 
province  in  which  it  is  capable  of  giving  the  most  lucrative 
and  economic  return. 

This  may  appear  to  be  a  simple  issue,  but,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  it  is  one  bristling  with  perplexities,  invariably  in- 
volving the  expenditure  of  appreciable  time  and  profound 
study.  Some  of  the  difficulties  to  be  overcome  are  of  an 
extremely  abstruse  technical  order,  and  so  can  only  be 
resolved  through  the  indefatigability  of  the  chemist,  which 
goes  to  prove  that  the  scientist  really  dominates  industry 
and  commerce.  This  fact  was  advanced  many  years  ago, 
but  it  is  only  really  acknowledged  to-day. 

A  specific  trade  yields  a  conspicuous  volume  of  residue 
of  a  distinctive  character.  From  its  composition  and 
general  characteristics  it  appears  to  be  eminently  adapted 
to  a  certain  duty.  But  the  chemist  attached  to  the  industry 
for  which  the  waste  is  provisionally  ear-marked  delves  into 
the  problem,  only  to  find  that  it  is  totally  unfitted  for  what 
seemed  to  be  an  obvious  application.  He  may  even  go  so 
far  as  to  assert  his  doubts  as  to  the  material  possessing 
qualifications  for  any  known  use,  owing  to  its  unfavourable 
nature,  or  because  application  may  prove  to  be  too  costly. 

2OT 


208  MILLIONS  FROM  WASTE 

In  such  an  event  that  residue  must  remain  an  apparently 
redundant  product  until  a  possible  field  for  its  utilization 
happens  to  be  found. 

A  case  in  point  may  be  cited.  In  the  manufacture  of 
boots  for  the  Services  enormous  quantities  of  trimmings 
accumulated,  owing  to  the  specifications  relative  to  the 
selection  of  skins  for  official  needs  being  more  rigid  than 
obtains  for  footwear  designed  for  civilian  use.  These 
trimmings  proved  to  be  quite  useless  to  the  trade,  and  so 
endeavour  became  concentrated  upon  the  discovery  of  some 
other  attractive  utilitarian  duty  for  them. 

The  main  objection  to  this  residue — curried  leather — 
was  the  grease.  It  was  decided  to  remove  it — a  relatively 
simple  and  commercially  practicable  operation.  But  in 
solving  the  one  problem  another,  every  whit  as  perplexing, 
was  precipitated.  The  degreased  leather  could  be  used, 
but  what  was  to  be  done  with  the  extracted  grease,  the 
contribution  of  which  was  imposing  ?  In  appearance  this 
grease  resembles  the  dubbin  used  for  dressing  footwear. 
Seeing  that  it  was  recovered  from  new  leather  the  thought 
was  entertained  that  this  grease  might  be  used  in  lieu  of, 
or  at  least  to  supplement  the  supplies  of,  the  conventional 
dubbin. 

When  the  chemist  took  the  proposal  in  hand  he  speedily 
shattered  all  hopes  of  turning  the  grease  to  such  account. 
He  produced  an  analysis  which  proved  that  the  grease, 
instead  of  being  a  leather  preserver  as  had  been  anticipated, 
was  really  a  leather  destroyer.  The  fatty  acids  were  too 
predominant.  Forthwith  that  grease  had  to  be  abandoned 
as  a  potential  dubbin  substitute. 

Yet  the  chances  are  a  thousand  to  one  that  the  chemist 
will  succeed  in  indicating  a  profitable  use  for  this  reclaimed 
fat  from  unused  curried  leather,  because  with  war  we  have 
acquired  wisdom.  We  are  not  so  ready  to  throw  away  a 
substance  just  because  we  happen  to  be  ignorant  of  an 
immediate  industrial  application  therefor.  Rather  are  we 
disposed  to  put  forth  a  little  exertion  to  strive  to  adapt, 
or  to  create,  some  useful  range  of  service  for  it.  There 
are  hundreds  of  heads  at  work  throughout  the  country 
attacking  just  such  problems  as  the  recovered  grease  from 
leather,  and,  consequently,  from  such  a  distribution  and 
concentration  of  fertility  of  thought,  it  is  only  reasonable 


THE  WASTE-BIN  209 

to  suppose  that  such  issues  will  ultimately  be  fathomed 
satisfactorily  to  one  and  all. 

Such  close  union  of  brain  power  and  ingenuity  is  not 
confined  to  any  one  industry.  The  search  for  the  most 
promising  fields  for  waste-products  is  far  too  fascinating. 
Even  the  private  member  of  the  community  is  taking  a 
hand  in  the  great  game,  and  is  contributing,  in  varying 
degree,  to  the  widespread  success  which  has  been,  and  still 
is  being,  recorded. 

The  rural  housewife,  in  her  lonely  remote  home,  con- 
tributes to  the  amenities  of  country  life  by  bottling  her 
own  fruits,  following  this  practice  to  avoid  wastage  arising 
from  a  glut  of  produce  in  her  own  garden,  or  in  her  apprecia- 
tion of  the  prolific  luscious  contributions  offered  by  the 
wild  hedgerow.  She  knows  that  the  rubber  rings  with 
which  the  bottles  are  sealed  can  only  be  used  once.  Hitherto, 
she  has  always  thrown  the  spent  rings  into  the  fire  to  get 
rid  of  them.  Now,  true  housewife  that  she  is,  she  reasons 
that  surely  these  rings,  while  useless  to  her  for  fruit  bottling, 
are  suitable  for  some  other  equally  important  purpose. 
Forthwith  she  makes  inquiries  to  ascertain  the  quarter  in 
which  they  are  likely  to  find  favour,  even  if  it  be  only  to 
swell  the  scrap-rubber  melting-pot. 

The  closely  observant  student  of  the  countryside,  during 
his  autumnal  rambles  through  the  copses  and  spinneys, 
reflects  upon  the  profusion  of  the  hazel-nut,  and  the  cir- 
cumstance that  this  crop  is  permitted  to  fall  to  the  ground 
to  rot,  or  to  suffer  only  partial  appropriation  by  the  thrifty 
squirrel.  Surely,  he  ruminates,  such  wild  fruit  possesses 
some  commercial  value.  The  shell  can  be  turned  into  a 
high  grade  charcoal  for  the  laboratory,  while  the  nut  itself 
is  rich  in  oil,  which  it  ought  to  pay  to  extract,  leaving  a 
residue  to  offer  an  excellent  winter-feed  for  cattle.  As  he 
ponders  upon  the  problem  the  fact  dawns  upon  him  that 
the  country  is  rather  more  disposed  to  import  vast  quan- 
tities of  a  similar  product,  derived  from  the  coco-nut,  palm 
kernels  and  other  exotic  fruits,  than  to  exert  itself  a  trifle 
to  turn  its  domestic  resources  to  account. 

It  is  useless  for  him  to  try  to  rouse  the  country  to  realize 
the  wealth  it  is  allowing  to  slip  through  its  fingers.  Any 
suggestion  concerning  the  recovery  of  the  hazel-nut  meets 
with  the  instant  retort  that  there  is  no  organization  available 

14 


210  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

to  conduct  the  requisite  collection  of  the  nuts  in  due  season, 
and  that  the  end  would  not  justify  the  means,  owing  to 
the  time,  labour,  and  expense  involved.  But  when  we  come 
face  to  face  with  stress  such  potential  wealth  of  wild  rural 
Britain  meets  with  recognition.  Was  it  not  stringency 
which  prompted  the  harvest  of  the  blackberry  crop  in  1918 
to  avert  the  threatened  shortage  of  jam  ?  Yet  the  very 
success  which  attended  the  gathering  of  the  blackberry  crop, 
and  the  zest  with  which  the  task  was  pursued  by  the  juvenile 
section  of  the  population  of  the  country,  should  suffice  to 
indicate  that  the  hazel-nut  might  just  as  profitably,  easily, 
cheaply,  and  efficiently  be  gathered  to  swell  the  output  of 
margarine  or  to  be  turned  to  other  industrial  account. 
Surely,  by  the  exercise  of  enterprise  and  thrift  in  this  direc- 
tion, we  might  be  able  to  reduce  our  expenditure  of  upwards 
of  £16,000,000 — $80,000,000 — a  year  upon  oils  and  materials 
for  the  preparation  of  edible  foodstuffs  for  both  man  and 
beast  to  a  certain  degree,  and  thereby  foster  additional 
native  industries.  If  further  testimony  be  required  to 
demonstrate  the  facility  with  which  such  a  wild  home-product 
might  be  secured  were  collection  attacked  along  the  proper 
lines,  does  not  the  acquisition  of  the  horse-chestnut  crop  of 
the  country  in  1917  suffice  ? 

The  photographer  is  another  lamentable,  albeit  uncon- 
scious, contributor  to  the  great  wastage  problem.  There 
are  hundreds  of  thousands  of  enthusiastic  amateurs  scat- 
tered up  and  down  the  country.  Their  consumption  of 
glass  negatives  and  films  during  the  course  of  the  year  runs 
into  colossal  figures.  Yet  of  the  millions  of  exposures 
which  are  made  how  many  can  be  construed  into  successes, 
or,  if  satisfactory,  need  be  retained  for  any  prolonged 
period  ?  If  preserved  the  negatives  accumulate  at  an 
alarming  rate,  to  present  exasperating  posers  in  regard  to 
their  safe  storage. 

What  becomes  of  these  ruined  and  superfluous  negatives  ? 
So  far  as  the  films  are  concerned  there  is  no  mystery.  They 
meet  an  unmourned  fate  in  flames.  But  the  glass  negatives 
are  somewhat  more  troublesome  to  scrap.  Some  idea  of 
the  immensity  of  the  hoards  of  negatives  possessed  by  both 
amateur  and  professional  photographers  was  revealed  during 
the  war.  The  stupendous  production  of  anti-gas  masks 
was  responsible  for  huge  inroads  upon  our  glass  manufacturing 


THE   WASTE-BIN  211 

facilities.  When  the  United  States  of  America  entered  the 
arena,  and  concluded  arrangements  in  this  country  for 
the  supply  of  this  indispensable  article  of  equipment  to  the 
American  troops,  the  demand  for  suitable  glass  was  forced 
up  to  such  a  level  as  to  tax  our  producing  capacity  to  a 
supreme  degree. 

The  glass  was  required  to  furnish  the  eye-pieces  to  the 
masks.  These  were  circular  in  shape,  and  about  2\  inches 
in  diameter.  Each  eye-piece  was  made  from  two  discs  of 
glass  which  were  superimposed,  with  a  thin  layer  of  xylonite 
between.  The  last-named  was  introduced  to  extend  en- 
hanced safety  to  the  fighting  men.  A  ricocheting  shell 
splinter  might  strike  the  goggle,  shattering  the  outer  layer, 
but  the  inner  section  might  possibly  escape  all  injury.  Even 
if  the  blow  were  sufficiently  severe  to  smash  both  sections 
of  a  single  eye-piece  the  goggle  was  not  certain  to  be  shivered 
like  the  window-pane  struck  by  a  stone.  The  intermediate 
layer  of  xylonite  nullified  the  force  of  the  impact  to  a  striking 
degree,  any  starring  that  might  be  communicated  to  the 
inner  disc  not  necessarily  being  in  line  with  that  produced 
on  the  outer  glass,  except,  of  course,  in  instances  of  a  direct 
hit.  Moreover,  the  glass  was  deprived  of  its  characteristic 
tendency  to  splinter  under  a  blow,  owing  to  the  intervening 
thin  film  of  xylonite.  Photographers  will  appreciate  the 
situation  from  their  experience  with  their  glass  negatives. 
When  dropped  the  glass  may  be  smashed  into  a  hundred 
fragments,  but  they  are  invariably  held  in  position  by  the 
attached  film. 

The  glass  required  for  this  purpose  had  to  be  of  a  certain 
standard,  not  exceeding  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  thick- 
ness, and  free  from  flaws.  The  authorities  discovered  that 
photographic  negatives  were  made  of  the  very  material 
desired,  and  realized  that  here  was  a  peculiar  opportunity 
to  remedy  the  deficiency  they  were  experiencing  in  regard 
to  the  supply  of  new  material  from  the  accepted  manu- 
facturing sources.  Accordingly,  appeal  was  made  to  all 
photographers  to  turn  out  their  stocks  of  dismal  failures 
and  negatives  which  need  be  retained  no  longer,  and  to 
surrender  them  to  the  Government. 

The  demand  was  certainly  pretentious.  The  eye-pieces 
were  required  at  the  rate  of  500,000  a  week.  As  two  quarter- 
plate  negatives  were  required  to  produce  a  single  goggle— 


212  MILLIONS  FROM  WASTE 

four  for  each  mask — it  will  be  seen  that  2,000,000  discarded 
quarter-plate  negatives  were  sought  weekly  to  keep  pace 
with  demand.  Of  course,  larger-sized  plates  enabled  the 
discs  to  be  cut  more  economically,  but  it  is  the  quarter- 
plate  which  has  the  biggest  vogue  among  the  huge  army 
of  amateur  photographic  enthusiasts,  owing  to  questions  of 
expense,  and  so  appeal  was  especially  made  for  plates  of 
this  size,  in  the  feeling  that  here  was  the  richest  mine  to  be 
tapped. 

The  negatives  were  stripped,  the  emulsion  being  dissolved 
from  the  foundation  by  the  aid  of  chemicals.  In  this 
manner  the  nitrate  of  silver  content  was  recovered  to  be 
turned  to  profitable  account.  The  metallic  yield  from  the 
individual  plate  is  negligible,  but,  under  quantitative  treat- 
ment, as  in  this  instance,  the  reclamation  was  rendered 
profitable.  No  attempt  was  made  to  exploit  the  emulsion, 
but  there  seems  to  be  no  reason  why  this  should  not  have 
been  utilized. 

All  trimmings  from  the  glass  in  cutting  the  discs  were 
carefully  garnered.  These  formed  what  is  known  as  "  glass 
cullet,"  which  was  returned  to  the  glass-makers.  Being  of 
high  quality  the  cullet  commanded  a  ready  sale,  the  glass 
obtained  from  re-melting  being  used  for  the  fabrication  of 
ink-bottles,  salt-cellars,  scent-bottles  and  a  hundred  and  one 
other  articles  in  urgent  request,  while  an  appreciable  quantity 
was  again  converted  into  the  base  for  further  photographic 
negatives. 

Plates  exceeding  the  officially  inscribed  thickness  of  one- 
sixteenth  of  an  inch  were  not  unceremoniously  consigned 
to  the  melting-pot,  but  after  being  stripped  of  the  emulsion, 
were  sold  to  the  trade  for  contrivance  into  the  passe-partout 
photographic  mounts  so  much  the  vogue  to-day  among 
enthusiastic  amateur  photographers,  for  picture  framing, 
and  numerous  other  applications  for  which  their  dimensions 
and  the  quality  of  the  glass  rendered  them  eminently 
suitable. 

Turning  to  another  phase  of  industry,  gloves  of  every 
description  have  soared  in  price,  irrespective  of  the  materials 
used  in  their  production.  Even  those  contrived  from  stout 
textile,  which  five  years  ago  were  readily  procurable  for  a 
few  pence,  commanded  shillings  a  pair.  In  this  instance 
the  rise  in  price  was  primarily  due  to  the  call  for  vast  quan- 


THE  WASTE-BIN  213 

tities  by  the  munition  factories  to  extend  a  measure  of 
protection  to  the  hands  of  the  workers,  more  especially  the 
women.  Toiling  Britain  became  converted  to  the  gauntlet 
habit,  so  pronounced  across  the  Atlantic,  as  a  result  of  war. 

As  may  be  imagined,  from  the  character  of  the  work 
involved,  these  gloves  suffered  speedy  deterioration,  be- 
coming saturated  with  grease  and  grime  from  the  handling 
of  metal  and  the  operation  of  machinery  and  tools.  One 
firm  found  itself  saddled  with  112  lb.  of  these  dirty  gloves 
every  week,  and  the  item  "  glove  renewals  "  consequently 
grew  somewhat  impressive.  Feeling  that  this  expenditure 
might  be  capable  of  reduction,  the  firm  sought  a  simple 
and  inexpensive  cleaning  process  for  the  removal  of  the 
grease,  to  give  the  gloves  a  new  lease  of  useful  life,  the  fact 
having  been  ascertained  that  the  textile  itself  suffered  little 
injury  as  the  result  of  a  few  days'  wear  and  tear. 

Experiments  were  made  and  the  requirements  of  the 
firm  were  met  very  effectively.  Not  only  were  the  gloves 
turned  out  clean  and  sound,  enabling  them  to  be  used  over 
and  over  again  until  the  textile  was  worn  out,  but  the  oil 
and  grease  with  which  they  were  sodden  was  recovered. 
This  was  cleaned  and  found  serviceable  either  as  "  cutting 
oil  "  for  use  with  the  tools,  or  as  fuel  oil  for  engines  of  the 
Diesel  type. 

I  have  previously  referred  to  the  reclamation  of  the 
grease  from  the  leather  trimmings  accruing  from  the  manu- 
facture of  boots  for  the  Services.  The  trimmings  represent 
pieces  of  good  sound  leather,  of  all  shapes  and  sizes,  some 
of  the  fragments  being  of  relatively  large  dimensions.  A 
selection  of  this  waste  from  two  large  Northampton  factories 
was  secured.  It  was  carefully  sorted.  The  larger  pieces 
were  found  to  be  useful  for  providing  patches  of  varying 
sizes,  capable  of  profitable  use  by  the  trade  for  the  repair 
of  civilian  footwear.  The  larger  sections  of  soleing  leather 
were  similarly  sorted,  having  been  found  adaptable  to  what 
is  known  as  "  packing-up  "  in  resoleing  operations. 

By  the  time  this  sorting  had  been  completed  only  shreds 
and  tatters  of  leather  were  left.  These  were  degreased  for 
the  recovery  of  the  dubbin-like  fat  already  described,  and 
to  leave  the  leather  quite  clean,  soft,  and  pliable.  The 
fragments  from  the  uppers  were  again  examined,  and  found 
capable  of  further  selection  to  serve  as  raw  material  for 


214  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

another  industry  which  was  being  sorely  harassed  from  the 
non-availability  of  the  raw  leather  upon  which  it  was  nor- 
mally dependent.  This  was  the  fabrication  of  the  tiny, 
circular,  serrated-edge  leather  discs  or  "  tufts  "  used  in  the 
making  of  mattresses  for  bedding. 

This  discovery  proved  to  be  extremely  opportune. 
Leather  had  grown  so  scarce  that  the  normal  supplies  for 
this  range  of  duty  had  been  summarily  cut  off.  Yet  mat- 
tresses cannot  be  made  without  these  tufts,  and  the  bedding 
trade  had  been  striving  diligently  to  discover  the  suitability 
of  certain  suggested  substitutes,  when  along  came  the 
suggestion  that  degreased  uppers  waste  from  the  boot 
factories  might  possibly  satisfy  all  demands  in  this  direction. 

The  ability  to  exploit  the  residue  in  this  manner  provided 
the  Lord  Roberts'  Memorial  Workshops  with  an  additional 
field  for  activity,  of  which  due  advantage  was  taken.  Then 
it  was  found  that  the  soleing  leather  might  be  put  to  equally 
useful  service.  Many  trades  were  reduced  to  a  quandary 
from  the  inability  to  obtain  leather  supplies  from  which 
to  make  washers.  This  waste  was  found  to  fill  the  bill 
very  neatly,  because  as  with  boots  so  with  washers — there 
is  nothing  like  leather.  Certainly  no  substitute  therefore 
has  yet  been  found  able  to  fulfil  the  required  duty  so  effi- 
ciently as  the  hide  from  the  cow,  although  there  has  been 
no  lack  of  enterprise  in  this  direction.  The  wisps  and  scraps 
of  uppers  and  soles  of  leather  remaining  from  this  selection — ■ 
mere  shavings  and  shreds — are  ground  up  and  converted 
into  fertilizer. 

That  leather  trimmings  from  the  boot  factories,  hitherto 
regarded  as  absolutely  useless,  are  forthcoming  in  sufficient 
quantities  to  fulfil  the  claims  of  the  tuft  and  washer  trades 
have  been  definitely  ascertained.  The  residue  is  far  more 
imposing  than  might  popularly  be  conceived,  especially  in 
connection  with  the  production  of  Service  boots.  Organized 
collection  alone  is  required  to  bring  this  source  of  possible 
supply  into  contact  with  the  market.  From  three  factories 
alone  approximately  2,300  lb.  of  trimmings  are  obtainable 
every  week.  Multiply  this  yield  by  the  number  of  boot 
factories  in  the  country,  and  it  will  be  seen  that  this  leather 
waste  could  supply  adequate  material  to  allow  tufts  and 
washers  to  be  turned  out  in  their  millions  during  the  course 
of  the  year. 


THE  WASTE-BIN  215 

Even  the  manufacture  of  civilian  footwear,  especially  of 
feminine  fancy  boots,  yields  its  quota  of  waste.  But  the 
contribution  is  not  so  pronounced  as  with  Service  footwear 
because  wider  scope  exists  for  working  up  the  surplus. 
Nevertheless,  all  waste,  no  matter  what  its  character  may  be, 
has  a  utilitarian  value.  The  cloth  remnants  find  a  ready 
market  for  the  manufacture  of  paper.  The  cork  sole  cuttings, 
composed  of  cork,  with  cotton  and  wool  attached,  are 
similarly  retrieved  by  the  ton.  Sorting  enables  the  cork 
to  be  recovered  for  the  manufacture  of  linoleum,  the  cotton 
for  the  paper  mills,  and  the  woolly  component  for  shoddy. 

Finally  we  get  the  floor  sweepings — a  collection  of 
leather,  textiles,  and  other  materials  recovered  by  the  aid 
of  the  broom.  So  far  as  Northampton  is  concerned — the 
system  probably  prevails  in  other  boot-making  centres — the 
practice  has  been  for  the  municipal  authorities  to  collect 
these  accumulations  and  to  remove  them  to  the  dust-de- 
structor for  incineration.  This  was  regarded  as  the  simplest, 
cheapest,  and  most  efficient  method  for  their  disposal. 

Salvage  experts  examined  these  sweepings.  They  found 
a  far  more  utilitarian  use  for  this  waste.  It  was  worth 
£2 — $10 — a  ton  for  conversion  into  fertilizer.  Seeing  that 
about  1,000  tons  a  year  of  these  sweepings  are  recoverable 
from  two  or  three  factories  it  will  be  seen  that  we  have 
been  content  to  send  £2,000 — $10,000 — annually  up  the 
chimnej/  of  a  dust-destructor  from  sheer  lack  of  foresight 
and  the  expenditure  of  a  little  thought  and  trouble  during 
the  very  period  when  our  land  is  clamouring  for  nitrogenous 
fertilizers. 

Before  leaving  the  boot  trade  I  might  refer  to  another 
recent  development  concerning  a  certain  waste  which  is  of 
decided  interest.  Patent  cuttings  presented  quite  a  different 
proposal  from  the  odds  and  ends  of  ordinary  leather.  The 
glossy  finish  was  held  to  be  a  drawback,  because  obviously 
it  would  have  to  be  removed  before  the  material  could  be 
submitted  to  any  of  the  purposes  described.  It  was  antici- 
pated that  such  preliminary  treatment  might  prove  too 
expensive  to  render  the  recovery  worth  while.  But  a  simple 
and  cheap  process  for  securing  the  patent  in  the  form  of  a 
fine  dust — "  curriers'  powder  " — was  found.  This  left  the 
leather  free  for  further  exploitation.  Then  the  question  of 
turning   the   reclaimed   dust   to   account   arose.      Inquiries 


210  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

were  made,  but  there  appeared  to  be  no  opening  for  it.  It 
looked  as  if  this  curriers'  powder  would  have  to  be  set  on 
the  shelf  in  company  with  the  recovered  grease  against  a 
day  of  brilliant  discovery  upon  the  part  of  the  indefatigable 
chemist. 

But  a  firm  specializing  in  a  peculiar  phase  of  activity 
came  along.  It  was  experiencing  distinct  difficulty  in 
finishing  off  the  work  with  which  it  is  identified  with  the 
requisite  degree  of  satisfaction.  Suddenly  it  had  occurred 
to  the  technical  staff  that  this  fine  dust  might  possibly 
extricate  them  from  the  dilemma  with  which  the  firm  was 
confronted.  The  dust  was  submitted  to  trial.  The  tests 
are  not  yet  conclusive,  but  the  results  so  far  recorded  have 
fully  justified  the  utilization  of  this  material ;  certainly  the 
firm  in  question  is  disposed  to  concede  its  employment  as 
the  solution  to  their  difficulty.  Should  these  expectations 
be  fully  realized  there  is  every  indication  that  the  demand 
for  curriers'  powder  will  become  exceedingly  heavy,  and 
from  a  quarter  which  will  arouse  widespread  surprise.  The 
consumption  in  this  realm  will  eclipse  that  ever  likely  to 
be  recorded  in  connection  with  footwear.  While  industrial 
ethics  preclude  the  mention  of  the  precise  application  in 
question,  it  may  be  added  that  it  is  about  as  closely  allied 
or  has  as  much  in  common  with  boots  as  the  use  of  cheese 
in  the  production  of  steel. 

The  one  overwhelming  obstacle  to  the  commercial  utiliza- 
tion of  waste  is  organized  and  cheap  segregation  and  collec- 
tion. This  difficulty  is  aggravated  when  the  refuse  in 
question  happens  to  be  in  a  combined  form,  that  is  to  say, 
when  two  or  three — perhaps  more — widely  divergent  sub- 
stances are  associated  to  produce  the  one  article.  Possibly 
only  one  of  the  constituents  possesses  a  known  market,  or 
it  may  so  happen  that  each  of  the  component  substances 
has  a  distinct  market  but  only  in  its  individual  form. 

As  a  rule  any  waste  of  this  character  from  industry  is 
regarded  with  contempt  by  the  approved  specialists  in  waste 
collection — the  itinerant  merchant  or  the  marine  store  dealer. 
Both  these  traders  prefer  to  conduct  their  operations  with 
approved  straight  and  unadulterated  materials.  If  the  waste 
happens  to  be  of  the  combined  character,  they  realize  that 
they  must  expend  a  certain  amount  of  time  and  labour  in 
its   separation    before  carrying   out    its   sale  to   advantage. 


THE  WASTE-BIN  217 

As  they  are  not  inclined  towards  such  exertion  they  refuse 
to  accept  the  residue. 

It  is  a  foolish  policy  and  one  which  directly  reacts  against 
their  own  interests.  Such  combined  waste  can  generally 
be  procured  at  a  trifling  figure.  The  factory  in  which  it 
accrues  cannot  afford  the  labour  or  time  necessary  to  bring 
about  the  separation  of  the  constituents.  Yet  when 
separation  is  completed  each  class  of  material  at  once  attains 
its  true  value.  Resolution  of  combined  waste  into  its  com- 
ponents does  not  involve  any  skill,  while  it  is  immaterial 
how  roughly  the  task  is  performed.  The  merchants  to 
whom  allusion  has  been  made  will  also  spurn  waste  of  un- 
doubted market  value  if  it  has  been  dressed  or  impregnated 
with  another  substance.  They  will  jump  at  rags  no  matter 
how  soiled  and  loathsome  their  appearance.  They  know 
the  dirt  can  be  removed  readily  and  cheaply,  but  they  never 
pause  to  reflect  that  substances  used  for  impregnating 
textiles  may  be  eliminated  just  as  easily.  Moreover,  unlike 
dirt,  the  recovered  dressing  may  possess  a  distinct  com- 
mercial value  in  itself. 

Waxed  flannel  is  a  recognized  commodity,  and,  in  fabri- 
cating articles  therefrom,  appreciable  quantities  of  trimmings 
are  obtained.  One  firm  was  in  a  quandary  as  to  the  disposal 
of  this  waste.  No  rag-and-bone  merchant  would  touch  it. 
The  firm  was  quite  prepared  to  sell  the  refuse  at  a  low  figure, 
fully  confident  that  it  could  be  turned  to  some  profitable 
purpose.  The  material  was  investigated,  and  the  separation 
of  the  wax  from  the  woollen  base  was  found  to  offer  no 
supreme  or  expensive  difficulty.  Yet  the  extraction  of  the 
wax  made  all  the  difference  in  the  intrinsic  worth  of  the 
waste.  At  that  time  the  de-waxed  flannel  fetched  85s. — 
$21.25 — a  hundredweight,  while  the  wax,  which  was  a 
high-grade  product,  was  also  of  distinct  value  because  it 
was  available  for  re-use. 

A  similar  problem  cropped  up  in  connection  with  oil- 
skin trimmings  resulting  from  the  manufacture  of  garments 
and  other  articles.  The  factory  concerned  stated  that  the 
waste  was  somewhat  pronounced  from  the  magnitude  of 
its  business,  but  what  to  do  with  it  was  beyond  their  know- 
ledge. Experiment  proved  the  separation  of  the  oil  to  be 
an  easy  matter,  and  so  the  release  of  the  cotton  textile 
was  secured.     In  the  degreased  form  the  trimmings  fetched 


218  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

from  50s.  to  60s. — $12.50  to  $15 — a  hundredweight  at 
the  time,  while  the  oil  was  also  a  valuable  by-product  and 
was  readily  absorbed  by  industry  at  a  favourable  figure. 

It  is  a  moot  point  whether  any  other  textile  enters  so 
extensively  into  industry  in  some  form  or  other  as  cotton. 
Consequently  cotton  refuse  is  recoverable  in  immense  quan- 
tities from  the  factories  and  workshops  where  this  textile 
is  converted  from  the  piece  into  garments  and  other  utili- 
tarian articles.  These  trimmings  for  the  most  part  are 
unsoiled,  but  equally  imposing  are  the  contributions  from 
the  domestic  rag-bag  and  the  refuse  bins  of  other  trades, 
whence  the  residue  is  forthcoming  in  a  more  or  less  soiled 
condition.  But  a  simple  cleaning  process  renders  it  suitable 
for  further  use.  Should  all  possible  or  promising  applica- 
tions be  exhausted  to  no  effect  then  this  residue  can  always 
be  absorbed  by  the  paper-mill.  The  paper-making  industry 
may  truthfully  be  described  as  the  salvor's  sheet-anchor  ; 
certainly  there  is  no  excuse  for  consigning  any  cotton  fabric 
to  the  flames  while  the  paper-maker's  craft  flourishes. 

But  in  the  majority  of  instances  this  waste,  as  alread}^ 
mentioned,  is  associated  with  some  other  substance,  for  the 
simple  reason  that  it  constitutes  an  ideal  inexpensive  base, 
or  foundation,  for  carrying  the  medium  desired.  Take  the 
rubber  mackintosh  sheeting  as  a  case  in  point.  Here  the 
cotton  sheet  foundation  is  impregnated  with  rubber  to 
secure  the  desired  waterproofness  of  the  material.  But  the 
trimmings  need  only  to  be  submitted  to  a  solvent  treatment 
to  bring  about  the  removal  of  the  rubber,  when  the  cotton 
base  at  once  becomes  released  for  the  paper-maker.  The 
rubber  is  also  retrieved  to  advantage  because  it  is  quite 
pure.  Emery  cloth,  which  has  been  discarded  as  too  worn 
for  further  use,  may  be  similarly  treated,  the  recovery  in 
this  instance  being  of  triple  value  when  conducted  upon  a 
large  scale,  comprising  respectively  the  emery  powder,  the 
oil,   the  fabric  base,  and  possibly  the  metallic  dust. 

The  extraction  of  nicotine  from  tobacco  is  a  flourishing 
industry.  This  trade  has  been  built  upon  the  commercial 
utilization  of  waste,  the  raw  material  comprising  tobacco 
declared  as  unsuitable  for  the  generally  recognized  com- 
mercial applications.  The  nicotine  is  extracted  for  the 
preparation  of  insecticides  and  other  commodities  for  which 
the  juice  is  eminently  adapted. 


THE  WASTE-BIN  219 

To  obtain  the  nicotine  the  discarded  tobacco  is  placed 
in  linen  bags.  Subsequent  treatment  follows  certain  lines. 
As  may  be  imagined,  owing  to  the  extremely  oleaginous 
or  gummy  character  of  the  juice  and  grease,  these  bags 
become  clogged  during  the  extracting  process.  In  course 
of  time  they  become  so  saturated  as  to  be  unfit  for  further 
use,  not  through  any  failure  of  the  actual  fabric,  but  because 
the  fine  mesh  of  the  material  has  become  choked.  Owing 
to  their  admitted  repulsive  character  the  bags  were  thrown 
away  or  burned. 

One  firm  specializing  in  this  industry  accumulated  soiled 
bags  to  the  extent  of  approximately  2,000  per  month.  It 
had  never  contemplated  the  feasibility  of  subjecting  them 
to  any  treatment,  probably  because  new  bags  were  relatively 
cheap.  But,  as  a  result  of  the  national  demand  for  linen 
for  more  vital  purposes,  and  the  exceeding  scarcity  of  the 
basic  raw  material,  which  had  the  effect  of  sending  the 
price  of  flax  from  £54  to  £280 — $270  to  $1,400 — per  ton, 
the  idea  of  recovering  the  bags  assumed  more  pressing 
significance.  A  sample  was  taken  and  submitted  to  a  de- 
greasing  process.  It  was  discovered  that  the  combined 
action  of  steam  and  centrifugal  action  speedity  separated 
the  clogging  gummy  constituents  from  the  fibres  of  the 
linen.  When  examined  after  treatment  the  bags  were 
found  to  be  quite  free  from  every  trace  of  the  nicotine, 
and  it  would  have  been  difficult  for  the  uninitiated  ever  to 
have  identified  them  with  the  industry  of  nicotine  extrac- 
tion. The  tobacco  juice  was  recovered  in  appreciable 
bulk,  but  what  was  far  more  important  was  the  reclamation 
of  the  bags.  In  the  cleansed  condition  they  were  worth 
from  £20  to  £40 — $100  to   $200 — per  ton. 

To  enumerate  all  the  industries  from  which  odds  and 
ends  of  cotton-waste  are  derivable  would  demand  too  much 
space.  There  are  stalks  and  ends  of  plumes  from  the  fabri- 
cation of  artificial  feathers,  tangled  bundles  of  loose  tatters, 
fragments  of  silk  in  a  thousand  and  one  forms,  mercerized 
and  natural,  and  so  on.  The  yield  from  a  single  factory  or 
workroom  may  be  trifling,  perhaps,  while  there  is  the  rag- 
merchant  to  hand  to  take  delivery  of  this  residue.  A  firm 
may  readily  concede  the  preservation  of  its  waste  until  it 
assumes  a  formidable  bulk  to  be  more  troublesome  than  it 
is  worth,  as  well  as  littering  the  factory  or  occupying  space 


220  MILLIONS   FROM   WASTE 

which  can  be  put  to  more  valuable  account.  So  it  generally 
throws  the  residue  into  the  furnace,  but  the  utilization  of 
such  waste  as  fuel  represents  the  most  costly  method  of 
disposal  which  could  be  practised. 

The  losses  arising  from  such  action  are  immense  and 
deplorable,  more  especially  when  it  is  remembered  how 
easily  and  readily  they  might  be  avoided.  It  is  somewhat 
consoling  to  reflect  that,  to-day,  despite  the  many  per- 
plexities involved,  the  salvage  of  this  refuse  is  being  attacked 
along  serious  lines.  Factories  and  workshops  are  beginning 
to  appreciate  that  these  residues  can  always  command 
good  money  from  the  pulp-makers,  the  result  being  that 
much  less  residue  is  being  lost  through  the  too  handy  furnace 
than  formerly.  Parings  from  ladies'  velour  hats,  felt  trim- 
mings, odd  pieces  from  billiard-table  cloths — woollen  frag- 
ments in  a  thousand  different  forms  are  now  finding  profitable 
utilization.  All  such  waste  is  being  snapped  up  greedily 
by  the  shoddy  mills.  During  the  war  some  of  this  waste 
was  somewhat  freely  absorbed  for  carrying  out  elaborate 
camouflage  schemes  to  screen  the  movements  and  disposi- 
tion of  troops,  guns,  and  transport  from  the  prying  eyes 
of  the  enemy,  but  to-day  it  is  all  being  released  for  the 
reproduction  of  clothing  material,  blankets,  and  other 
articles  innumerable — all  of  far-reaching  import  to  the 
community. 

My  Lady,  when  she  contemptuously  discards  her  straw 
hat,  does  so  without  venturing  a  thought  as  to  its  possible 
further  value,  except,  perhaps,  as  a  lighter  for  the  kitchen 
fire.  But  the  abandoned  headgear,  together  with  the  straw 
refuse  plaiting  from  the  factory,  now  possesses  a  market 
apart  from  that  for  making  paper.  It  is  being  used  exten- 
sively for  stuffing  the  backs  and  seats  of  cheap  furniture. 
During  the  period  of  war  this  waste  was  found  suitable 
for  another  mission  and  one  which  still  obtains.  This  was 
as  a  substitute  for  wood-wool,  which  virtually  disappeared 
from  the  market.  Wood-wool  is  prepared  from  wet  wood, 
and,  naturally,  a  certain  period  of  time  must  elapse  to  allow 
rt  to  dry  before  it  can  be  set  to  its  designed  service.  When 
wood  was  cheap  and  plentiful  this  delay  presented  no  handi- 
cap, manufacture  being  continuous,  but  during  hostilities 
wood  became  counted  among  the  luxuries  of  commercial 
life.      It     was     far    too     valuable     to     be     shredded     into 


THE  WASTE-BIN  221 

wool,  except  in  severely  limited  quantities,  to  act  as 
packing. 

As  a  result  of  the  experiment  induced  by  stringency, 
plait  from  old  hats,  and  the  factory  waste,  were  found  to 
be  quite  as  good  as  the  wood-wool  in  this  capacity.  The 
colour  of  the  straw,  faded  or  otherwise,  constitutes  no 
disadvantage.  Consequently,  to  condemn  the  abandoned 
summer  friend  of  the  head  to  serve  as  a  fire-lighter  represents 
approximately  its  least  economical  application,  although  it 
ma}f  come  as  an  equal  surprise  to  learn  that  the  perfect 
dream  of  the  milliner's  creative  faculty  may  reappear  as 
the  protective  covering  to  chocolate  and  confectionery 
during  transit  from  manufactor}^  to  the  retailer  in  its  familiar 
wooden  box. 

Discarded  umbrella  coverings  may  not  appear  to  possess 
any  further  attraction  except  to  the  paper-maker.  But 
the  waste-expert  declares  otherwise.  A  flaw  in  the  silk 
covering  or  possible  damage  wrought  while  attaching  it  to 
the  frame  no  longer  constitutes  a  passport  for  the  material 
to  the  dust-bin  or  flames.  Finger-stalls  and  eye-shades 
may  be  contrived  from  this  waste.  For  making  eye-shades 
it  is  only  necessary  to  cut  a  piece  of  cardboard,  likewise 
retrieved  from  the  waste-bin,  to  the  desired  size  and  shape. 
Then,  by  the  aid  of  a  little  glue  the  silk  section  cut  from  the 
abandoned  umbrella  covering  may  be  fastened  to  the  card- 
board base. 

During  the  course  of  the  year  thousands  of  tons  of  string 
are  made  in  these  islands.  What  becomes  of  it  all  ?  One 
industry  utilizing  this  material  found  itself  saddled  with 
about  ten  tons  of  odd  lengths,  which,  thrown  into  the  waste- 
bin,  became  a  tangled  mass.  The  bewildering  array  was 
examined  by  an  expert.  He  found  that  whereas  some  of 
the  pieces  were  of  only  a  few  inches,  others  ran  to  three, 
four  and  even  more  feet  in  length.  He  contemplated  the 
pile  and  concluded  that  it  would  never  pay  to  unravel  the 
tangle.  It  was  a  task  calling  for  weeks  of  labour  and  infinite 
patience. 

His  first  inclination  was  to  hand  over  the  bulky  pile  to 
the  paper-mills  to  be  pulped.  But  further  consideration  of 
the  quantity  of  the  long  lengths  of  string  in  that  junk  heap 
prompted  an  alternative.  String,  neatly  prepared  in  large 
balls,  is  furnished  to  prisons  to  serve  as  raw  material  to  the 


222  MILLIONS   FROM   WASTE 

prisoners  engaged  in  the  overhaul  and  repair  of  bags.  Why 
not  send  this  collection  of  waste  to  the  penitentiaries  ? 
There  the  time  occupied  in  unravelling  the  tangled  jumble 
is  of  minor  importance.  Prison  labour  does  not  count, 
while  the  task  is  no  less  fruitful  than  that  of  picking  oakum. 
Forthwith  the  string  was  forwarded  to  these  establishments, 
and  was  found  to  meet  the  purpose  very  satisfactorily. 
Not  only  did  this  waste  release  an  appreciable  quantity  of 
new  string  for  more  valuable  applications,  but  it  also  enabled 
an  appreciable  saving  in  cost  of  bag  repairs  to  be  recorded, 
while  the  work  was  just  as  neatly  and  efficiently  fulfilled 
with  the  odd  lengths  as  with  new  string. 

In  another  case  a  farmer  of  a  thrifty  turn  of  mind  saved 
all  the  odd  lengths  of  binder  twine  accruing  from  the  use 
of  the  self-binder  to  harvest  his  crops.  When  untying  the 
sheaves  for  threshing  he  threw  the  lengths  into  a  bin,  and  in 
this  way  amassed  quite  a  respectable  pile.  It  was  promptly 
acquired  by  paper-makers  who  paid  him  25s. —  $6.25 — a 
hundredweight.  This  satisfactory  result  should  prompt  all 
our  farmers  to  exercise  like  economy  in  this  connection. 
They  would  find  it  to  their  financial  advantage  to  do  so. 
The  annual  consumption  of  binder  twine  in  these  islands 
runs  into  big  figures.  In  1917  we  imported  115,086  hundred- 
weights for  which  we  paid  £417,168 — $2,085,840 — while  in 
the  previous  year  the  figure  was  212,639  hundredweights 
valued  at  £550,104—  $2,750,520. 

To  assist  in  the  harvesting  of  the  1918  grain  crop  the 
Food  Production  Department  purchased  20,000  tons  of  this 
apparently  insignificant  material  to  ensure  farmers  receiving 
adequate  supplies.  When  the  grain  is  taken  in  hand  to  be 
threshed  the  recovery  of  this  waste  should  be  an  easy  and 
simple  matter.  It  is  only  necessary  to  provide  a  few  sacks 
to  receive  it.  Even  at  12s.  6d. — $3.12 — a  hundredweight 
it  would  prove  a  profitable  by-product  to  the  farmer,  and 
enable  him  to  recoup  a  certain  proportion  of  its  outlay 
upon  this  item,  while  it  would  tangibly  assist  another  industry. 
The  recovery  of  75  per  cent,  of  the  above-mentioned  20,000 
tons,  provided  through  the  instrumentality  of  the  Food 
Production  Department,  would  have  represented  approxi- 
mately £140,000 — $700,000 — and  have  contributed  towards 
the  production  of  2,500  to  4,000  tons  of  paper. 

To  indicate  how  organized  collection  influences  the  value 


THE   WASTE-BIN  223 

of  so-called  waste  and  its  economical  use,  the  experience  of 
an  importing  house  in  the  City  of  London  deserves  narration. 
This  firm  accumulated  an  appreciable  quantity  of  the  special 
packing  paper  with  which  the  wooden  cases  are  lined.  This 
paper  is  very  tough  and  is  strengthened  with  thick  cotton 
netting  of  open  mesh,  while  it  is  also  waterproofed.  The 
firm  did  not  know  what  to  do  with  the  waste,  but  was  re- 
luctant to  turn  it  over  to  the  paper-maker.  Inquiries 
were  conducted,  to  result  in  the  discovery  that  a  similar 
paper  was  used  for  packing  motor  tyres.  Thereupon  a  motor 
tyre  dispatch  firm  was  approached  with  the  suggestion 
that  it  might  find  it  profitable  to  acquire  this  residue.  The 
tyre-packers  were  buying  the  paper  specially  manufactured  for 
wrapping  purposes,  but  test  revealed  that  this  packing  case 
lining  was  equally  adapted  to  the  duty.  Thereupon  it 
expressed  its  readiness  to  take  over  all  the  residue  from 
the  importing  house  at  25s. — $6.25 — a  hundredweight. 
Unfortunately,  in  this  instance,  the  offer  could  only  be  met 
immediately  with  some  56  lb.,  but  if  all  the  firms  importing 
from  the  United  States  and  other  countries  were  to  conserve 
the  paper  lining  to  the  cases  coming  into  their  hands,  and 
to  dispose  of  it  to  other  trades  for  which  its  peculiar  con- 
struction renders  it  specially  suitable,  there  would  be  a 
material  reduction  in  the  strain  imposed  upon  our  domestic 
paper-mills,  while  a  proportionate  quantity  of  this  indis- 
pensable commodity  would  be  released  for  other  applications. 

We  are  all  familiar  with  the  little  disc  of  metal  having 
a  bent-over  corrugated  rim  and  a  cork  lining  which  has 
displaced  the  glass  stopper  and  driven-in  cork  for  sealing 
bottles.  It  is  commercially  known  as  the  "  Crown  Cork." 
A  slight  angular  prise  and  the  cap  flies  off.  It  is  one  of  those 
little  inventions  which  have  proved  a  great  boon  to  many 
trades,  especially  to  those  identified  with  the  bottling  of 
beers,  mineral  and  drinking  waters.  Incidentally  it  has 
proved  a  great  money-maker. 

An  observant  mind  discovered  that  the  tiny  cap  suffers 
little  or  no  damage  from  its  summary  removal.  Why 
should  it  not  be  used  again  ?  So  he  reasoned,  and  conducted 
experiments  to  establish  the  feasibility  of  such  a  suggestion. 
He  has  succeeded  completely  in  his  task.  By  a  simple, 
inexpensive  process,  which  he  has  devised,  these  crown 
corks  can  again  be  rendered  as  serviceable  for  their  designed 


224  MILLIONS  FROM  WASTE 

purpose  as  new  corks.  As  a  result  of  his  brilliant  ingenuity, 
and  saving  turn  of  mind,  this  observant  and  practical  waste 
exploiter  is  readily  disposing  of  the  renovated  article,  at 
eightpence  per  gross — 16  cents — which  is  300  per  cent, 
below  the  price  of  the  new  article. 

That  inventiveness  in  its  application  to  economy  is 
fascinating  and  profitable  is  demonstrated  very  convincingly 
by  the  array  of  contribution  of  sound  practicable  ideas 
which  are  being  contributed  towards  the  "  save  the  waste  " 
problem.  The  potato-peelings  attracted  one  economist,  who 
with  this  apparently  useless  material  and  no  other  contrived 
an  attractive  biscuit.  Another  experimentor,  securing  a 
few  ounces  of  fat  from  a  whale,  which  had  been  cast  upon 
the  beach  to  the  peril  of  the  residents  in  the  vicinity, 
converted  them  into  a  solid  white  block  somewhat  reminiscent 
of  candied  sugar,  by  submitting  the  fat  to  the  hardening 
process.  Another  effort  represents  a  bold  attempt  to  turn 
the  spent  tea-leaves  to  economical  account.  In  this  instance 
this  waste  was  mixed  with  another  residue — sawdust — and 
some  inexpensive,  readily  combustible  agent,  such  as  naph- 
thalene, also  waste.  The  mass  was  then  pressed,  and  offered 
a  presentable  and  effective  cheap  fire-lighter. 

Within  the  space  of  this  volume  it  is  impossible  to  exhaust 
the  many  efforts  which  are  being  made  to  turn  apparent 
waste  into  something  useful.  Sufficient  has  been  narrated 
to  indicate  that  there  is  no  limit  to  such  manifestations  of 
ingenuity.  Matter  is  indestructible.  Properly  handled,  it 
can  be  used  over  and  over  again.  Now  that  the  ball  of 
economy  has  been  set  rolling  in  grim  earnest,  strenuous 
endeavours  are  being  made  by  the  thrifty  and  provident 
to  redeem  the  English-speaking  race  from  the  indictment 
of  being  woefully  extravagant,  with  which  it  has  been 
freely  assailed  for  so  many  years. 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE  LIFTING-MAGNET  AS  A  WASTE  DEVELOPING 

FORCE 

Waste  is  precarious  to  handle.  The  very  nature  of  the 
material  demands  that  it  shall  be  worked  up  in  the  most 
economical  manner.  Under  the  fickle  influences  normally 
prevailing  upon  the  market,  the  margin  between  profit 
and  loss  may  suffer  such  attenuation  from  inefficient 
exploitation  as  to  submerge  the  factor  of  profit,  thus  en- 
dangering the  very  practice  of  utilizing  the  residue.  It  is 
immaterial  whether  time  or  labour  be  the  adverse  circum- 
stance. The  one  influence  can  be  quite  as  ruinous  as  the 
other.  Should  the  cumulative  effect  of  the  two  forces  be 
experienced  simultaneously,  then  the  results  are  almost 
certain  to  be  devastating  and  prompt  in  their  action.  Con- 
sequently, to  secure  the  uttermost  benefits  attainable  it 
is  imperative  that  the  most  economical  and  efficient  methods 
should  be  employed. 

This  is  particularly  the  case  in  the  iron  and  steel  trades. 
The  competition  between  the  various  nations  in  this  manu- 
facturing field  is  excitingly  keen.  It  must  not  be  forgotten 
that,  in  this  industry,  waste  plays  a  very  prominent  part 
as  a  raw  material.  It  may  be  tins  rescued  from  the  domestic 
dust-bin,  turnings  from  the  lathe,  a  worn-out  locomotive, 
boiler,  or  the  battered  hulk  of  a  steamship  snatched  from 
the  jaws  of  the  hungry  seas  through  the  ingenuity  of  the 
salvage  engineer. 

In  the  handling  of  scrap  and  junk  the  designing  engineer 
has  been  strikingly  ingenious,  resourceful,  and  free  with  his 
expressions  of  resource.  The  cranes  and  other  mechanical 
handling  devices,  which  he  has  evolved,  compel  attention 

15  225 


226  MILLIONS   FROM   WASTE 

for  the  simple  reason  that  they  have  been  introduced  to 
secure  a  reduction  in  the  cost  of  moving  the  material.  In 
this  direction  finality  is  impossible  of  attainment  ;  the 
necessity  to  reduce  the  cost  factor  is  so  urgent  and  con- 
tinuous. Creative  effort,  thus  fostered,  has  achieved  a 
distinct  triumph  during  the  past  few  years.  It  has  evolved 
a  new  system  of  dealing  with  iron  and  steel,  especially  the 
waste,  which  is  rapidly  displacing  all  other  methods  which 
hitherto  have  held  undisputed  sway.  I  refer  to  the  lifting- 
magnet. 

It  was  a  British  mind  which  first  conceived  the  idea 
of  harnessing  the  magnet  to  the  wheels  of  the  iron  industry. 
Sir  William  Sturgeon  saw  no  reason  why  the  toy  of  our 
childhood  days,  the  pin-attracting  properties  of  which 
extended  us  infinite  delight  and  provoked  indescribable 
wonder,  should  not  be  devoted  to  the  movement  of  pon- 
derous masses  of  steel.  So  he  made  the  experiment.  But 
his  noteworthy  effort  proved  only  partially  successful.  It 
did  not  fulfil  expectations,  not  because  the  designer  was 
wrong  in  his  deductions,  but  because  he  conducted  the 
evolution  along  fallacious  lines.  But  his  failure  set  men 
thinking.  They  followed  up  his  reasonings  and  discovered 
why  he  did  not  record  success.  The  British  pioneer  had 
been  content  to  accept  the  magnet's  familiar  form  and  to 
reproduce  it  upon  a  larger  scale  to  fulfil  his  objective.  This 
was  why  he  failed.  For  such  as  application  as  he  had  in 
his  mind's  eye  a  modification  in  design  was  imperative. 
The  German  and  American  experimenters,  who  followed 
in  his  footsteps,  quickly  realized  this  circumstance  and 
accordingly  abandoned  the  traditional  horse-shoe  form  for 
a  magnet  of  flat  drum-like  shape. 

In  this  modernized  and  materially  changed  form  the 
lifting-magnet  met  with  instant  success.  The  Germans  were 
the  first  to  recognize  its  possibilities,  and  accordingly  de- 
veloped and  popularized  its  utilization  in  accordance  with 
their  characteristic  organized  methods,  with  the  result  that 
it  was  not  long  before  all  the  leading  iron-  and  steel-works 
of  the  country  were  equipped  therewith  to  their  distinct 
commercial  advantage. 

So  far  as  America  and  Britain,  the  home  of  the  lifting- 
magnet,  have  been  concerned,  progress  has  been  slow  and 
uneventful.     The  Germans  set  out  to  reap  advantage  from 


THE  LIFTING-MAGNET  227 

our  manufacturing  apathy,  and  to  a  certain  degree  succeeded. 
It  remained  for  the  war,  with  its  drain  upon  cheap  labour 
on  the  one  hand  and  the  necessity  to  speed  up  and  to  in- 
crease output  on  the  other,  which  compelled  us  to  regard 
the  lifting-magnet  with  enhanced  favour.  This  tendency 
was  accentuated  by  the  urgent  requests  circulated  far  and 
wide  to  save  all  waste  metal  and  to  turn  it  over  to  the  country 
for  the  production  of  munitions.  In  this  manner  vast 
quantities  of  waste  metal  of  every  conceivable  description 
were  released,  which,  in  turn,  led  to  a  demand  for  handling 
appliances.  Under  the  conditions  which  obtained  it  was 
imperative  that  this  potential  raw  material  should  be 
handled  with  the  utmost  economy,  both  of  time  and  labour, 
but  native  ingenuity  had  nothing  at  its  command  to  compare 
with  the  lifting- magnet  in  this  connection.  Those  firms 
which  had  been  sufficiently  enterprising  to  equip  them- 
selves with  the  German  appliance  found  themselves  in  an 
overwhelming  superior  position,  while  their  lifting-magnets 
paid  for  themselves  over  and  over  again  in  the  course  of 
a  single  year. 

The  national  deficiency  in  supply  and  its  far-reaching 
adverse  effects  were  remedied  through  the  combined  enter- 
prise and  initiative  of  a  young  electrical  engineer  and  a 
British  manufacturer.  The  former  had  followed  the  German 
developments  very  closely  and  had  discovered  that,  not- 
withstanding their  extravagant  claims,  these  appliances 
really  fell  somewhat  short  of  the  mark  in  point  of  efficiency 
and  economy  in  operation.  Fortified  with  this  knowledge 
he  had  promptly  designed  an  appliance  of  this  character, 
in  which  the  obvious  Teuton  defects  were  eliminated, 
thereby  giving  a  lifting-magnet  which  represented  a  decided 
advance  upon  the  best  which  Germany  could  offer. 

The  Pickett-West  lifting-magnet,  so  named  after  its 
designer  and  manufacturer  respectively,  is  one  fully  com- 
plying with  traditional  British  standards  of  production, 
while  it  also  possesses  many  novel  features  which  have 
already  emphasized  their  value.  It  is  built  along  robust 
lines,  so  that  it  completely  fulfils  the  conditions  peculiar 
to  its  field  of  application.  Moreover,  its  design  can  be 
modified  within  wide  limits  to  meet  the  individual  require- 
ments of  the  service  for  which  it  is  intended,  one  distinctly 
ingenious  feature  being  the  model  fitted  with  moving  fingers, 


228  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

each  of  which  constitutes  a  magnet  in  itself,  and  wherewith 
the  magnet  is  able  to  exercise  the  maximum  magnetic 
gripping  power  upon  the  article  for  the  movement  of  which 
it  is  being  used. 

Without  entering  into  a  technical  description  of  this 
apparatus  it  may  be  said  to  comprise,  in  its  simplest  form, 
an  inverted  dish  with  a  central  pole-piece.  Round  this 
pole-piece  is  built  a  coil  composed  of  alternate  layers  of 
copper  of  substantial  dimensions  and  insulating  material. 
The  coil  is  enclosed  within  the  inverted  dish  and  a  face- 
plate is  bolted  in  position.  Thus  the  coil  which  occupies 
the  whole  of  the  case,  with  a  special  insulating  compound 
run  in  under  pressure  to  occupy  all  the  vacant  space  such 
as  corners  and  interstices,  is  completely  encased  and  safe 
from  tampering.  Suitable  terminals  are  fitted  and  are 
coupled  up  to  a  flexible  electric  cable  through  which  the 
current  is  led  to  energize  the  coil  and  to  impart  the  requisite 
magnetic  energy  to  the  lifting  face-plate.  When  the  coil 
is  active,  naturally  the  magnet  will  readily  attract  any 
ferrous  metal  which  it  may  chance  to  approach,  or  with 
which  it  may  come  into  contact,  and  this  will  continue  to 
cling  to  the  face  of  the  magnet  until  the  current  is  switched 
off.  The  magnet  is  slung  upon  the  hook  of  the  crane  either 
by  chains,  or  bars  forming  a  tripod  terminating  in  a  link. 
It  is  applicable  to  any  type  of  crane,  whether  it  be  of  the 
locomotive,  jib  or  derrick  type  or  overhead  travelling  system, 
and  with  equal  facility. 

The  foregoing  description  is  merely  a  bald  description 
of  the  lifting-magnet  in  its  simplest  form.  To  secure  the 
highest  efficiency  many  perplexing  technical  issues  had  to 
be  resolved.  The  magnet  is  necessarily  of  impressive 
dimensions  and  weight,  circular  or  rectangular  in  regard 
to  the  form  of  the  face-plate  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  work  to  be  fulfilled,  and  ranging  from  24  to  62  inches 
in  diameter.  The  most  popular  size  is  that  measuring 
52  inches  across  the  face.  Massive  construction  is  inevit- 
able to  enable  the  appliance  to  withstand  the  rough  wear 
and  tear,  as  well  as  unceremonious  handling,  to  which  it 
is  exposed  in  the  average  iron-works  by  indifferently  skilled 
labour,  or  to  meet  the  conditions  of  piece-work  when  oper- 
ations arc  necessarily  conducted  at  relatively  high  pressure 
by  the  men  who  are  bent  upon  the  consummation  of  one 


THE  LIFTING-MAGNET  229 

end — the  maximum  return  in  the  form   of  wages  for  the 
work  accomplished. 

Robust  construction  involves  weight.  Precisely  what 
this  means  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  the  German 
52-inch  lifting-magnet  weighed  3  tons,  whereas  its  British 
rival,  to  which  I  am  referring,  weighs  only  2f  tons  and 
has  a  20  per  cent,  greater  lifting  capacity,  despite  the  re- 
duction in  weight  of  the  magnet  itself.  The  magnet  in 
question  will  lift  from  900  to  33,600  pounds — even  more — 
according  to  the  character  of  the  material  to  be  handled, 
the  lower  figure  applying  to  sheet-iron,  scrap,  and  bolts, 
while  the  other  extreme  refers  to  heavy  solid  steel  ingots 
or  armour-plate. 

Precisely  why  the  lifting-magnet  should  have  taken  so 
long  to  establish  its  virtues,  both  in  this  country  and 
the  United  States  of  America,  is  somewhat  inscrutable, 
especially  in  the  latter  country  which,  as  a  rule,  is 
disposed  to  introduce  time-  and  labour-saving  appliances 
with  alacrity.  No  matter  from  what  point  of  view  it  may 
be  regarded,  it  represents  the  biggest  time-  and  labour- 
saver  as  well  as  money-maker  yet  introduced  into  the 
steel  industiy. 

One  reason  advanced  for  its  comparatively  slow  adoption 
is  rather  interesting.  It  was  averred  that  to  the  men, 
accustomed  as  they  were  to  seeing  loads  slung  by  chains, 
the  sight  of  a  mass  of  steel  clinging  to  the  face  of  the  magnet 
b}^  a  force  which  they  could  not  understand  verged  on  the 
uncanny.  They  knew  little  or  nothing  about  magnets 
except  in  the  form  of  a  toy,  and  could  not  understand  that 
sufficiently  attractive  effort  could  be  exerted  to  keep  the 
mass  adhering  to  the  flat  face  of  metal.  The  fact  that  the 
moment  the  current  was  switched  off  released  the  load 
was  something  equally  beyond  their  comprehension.  Forth- 
with they  arraigned  the  lifting-magnet  as  dangerous,  and, 
while  not  openly  condemning  its  use,  declined  to  work  in 
its  vicinity.  Whether  this  was  so  or  not  has  never  been 
fathomed,  but  it  is  generally  observable  that  men  working 
with  such  an  appliance  observe  a  wise  discretion,  and  refrain 
from  working  or  moving  beneath  it.  This  very  respect  for 
the  apparatus  has  achieved  one  distinctly  valuable  result : 
accidents  are  few  and  far  between,  even  in  America,  in 
which  country  respect  for  human  safety  is  declared  to  be 


230  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

at  zero,  where  the  handling  of  huge  masses  of  metal  is 
conducted  by  the  lifting-magnet. 

But,  eliminating  the  psychological  effect  upon  the  work- 
men, it  is  to  be  feared  that  employers  were  slow  to  visualize 
its  advantages.  Certainly  in  Britain  there  are  many  em- 
ployers, who,  notwithstanding  the  impressive  array  of 
figures  advanced  in  its  favour,  and  who  have  been  brought 
face  to  face  with  the  economies  it  is  able  to  effect,  still  cling 
tenaciously  to  antiquated  practices. 

So  far  back  as  191 1  Mr.  H.  F.  Stratton,  in  drawing  the 
attention  of  the  American  Foundrymen's  Association  to 
the  possibilities  of  the  lifting-magnet,  presented  some 
illuminating  figures.  At  that  time  the  American  steel 
industry  was  handling  10,000,000  tons  annually  by  this 
system  and  thereby  was  saving  over  £200, 000 — $1,000,000 — a 
year.  So  far  as  scrap  was  concerned  he  emphasized  the 
opportunity  it  presented  in  this  field,  because,  out  of  an 
annual  melt  of  6,000,000  tons  of  pig-iron  and  scrap,  from 
1,000,000  to  2,000,000  was  represented  by  scrap-iron  and 
steel. 

The  American  railways  were  among  the  first  to  appre- 
ciate the  possibilities  of  the  system.  The  Chicago,  Rock 
Island  and  Pacific  Railroad  introduced  the  idea  for  handling 
scrap  and  iron  in  1909.  Up  to  that  time  all  scrap  had  been 
handled  by  hand,  the  cost  in  and  out  ranging  from  30  to 
35  cents— I5d.  to  Tyhd.  per  ton — which,  according  to  the 
authority  cited,  could  be  accepted  as  applicable  to  all  the 
railways  following  such  a  practice,  and  to  record  which 
figure,  be  it  noted,  demanded  excellent  arrangements  and 
efficient  organization.  Upon  the  introduction  of  the  lifting- 
magnet  these  costs  were  immediately  cut  down  to  10  to 
12  cents — 5d.  to  6d. — per  ton,  in  and  out,  inclusive  of  every 
expense,  the  figure  for  the  actual  sorting  being  only  4  to 
7  cents — 2d.  to  3|d. — per  ton.  The  authorities  of  this 
railway  stated  that  unsorted  scrap  could  be  unloaded  by 
means  of  the  magnet  for  2  to  5  cents — id.  to  2|d. — per 
ton,  while,  if  the  scrap  were  sorted,  the  cost  came  out  l  to 
i\  cents — Id.  to  fd. — per  ton  !  Similar  work  conducted 
by  hand  labour,  according  to  the  previous  practice,  cost 
about  three  times  as  much. 

That  the  experience  of  this  one  railroad  was  not  isolated 
was  proved  by  the  experience  of  the  Lake  Shore  and  Michigan 


THE   LIFTING-MAGNET  231 

Southern  Railroad,  which  supplied  Mr.  Stratton  with  the 
following  comparative  figures  for  other  operations  incidental 
to  the  conduct  of  its  work  : — 

Loading  locomotive  tyres  by  hand         ..  ..    17  cents  (8£d.) 

,,  ,,         crane  with  chains       8     ,t         (4<i.) 

magnet      4     ,,         (2d.) 
heavy  casting  by  crane  with  chains      ..    20     „       (iod.) 

magnet   .  .     3     „       (i£d.) 
,,   hand  . .  . .  almost  impossible. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  handling  charges  by  the  magnet 
were  one-half  of  those  by  the  crane  with  chains  in  con- 
nection with  the  locomotive  tyres,  and  one-seventh  in  the 
case  of  the  heavy  castings,  while  the  advantage  over  manual 
effort  in  the  case  of  the  first-named  was  no  less  than  32 '5  per 
cent.  Little  wonder  that,  during  the  past  nine  years,  the 
utilization  of  the  lifting-magnet  in  connection  with  the  hand- 
ling of  iron  and  steel  in  the  United  States  has  advanced  by 
huge  strides.  To-day  it  constitutes  an  integral  part  of  the 
wrecking  equipment  of  every  leading  American  railroad. 
After  the  large  debris  has  been  cleared  up,  the  lifting-magnet 
is  swept  over  the  ground  to  pick  up  nuts,  bolts,  nails,  screws, 
and  any  other  odds  and  ends  of  a  ferrous  nature  which  have 
escaped  recovery  by  the  conventional  methods. 

So  far  as  these  islands  are  concerned,  considerable  pro- 
gress has  been  made  during  the  past  five  years  in  regard 
to  its  adoption.  Extended  use  has  not  been  confined  to 
the  handling  of  metal  in  our  steel-works,  but  for  the  reclam- 
ation of  iron  and  steel  cargoes  which  were  lost  as  a  result 
of  the  German  submarine  activity.  Its  employment  in 
the  salvage  field  was  suggested  as  the  result  of  the  sinking 
of  a  barge  carrying  ingots  of  very  special  steel  sunk  at  the 
entrance  to  a  port  on  the  East  Coast.  Although  the  wreck 
lay  in  relatively  shallow  water,  it  was  speedily  discovered 
that  salvage  by  the  orthodox  methods  would  prove  some- 
what uncertain,  owing  to  the  awkward  position  of  the 
sunken  barge  and  the  difficult  tidal  and  other  conditions. 

The  possibility  of  retrieving  the  valuable  steel  by  magnet 
was  broached  to  Mr.  F.  N.  Pickett,  the  inventor  of  the 
British  lifting-magnet,  to  which  I  have  referred.  A  certain 
doubt  upon  the  point  existed  in  official  circles  from  the 
knowledge  that  the  German  appliance  could  not  be  em- 


232  MILLIONS  FROM  WASTE 

ployed  in  such  duty,  owing  to  the  coil  not  being  impervious 
to  water,  which  of  course  nullifies  the  utilization  of  the 
electric  current.  But  the  British  magnet,  being  built  upon 
different  lines,  is  watertight,  and  so  the  designer  expressed 
complete  confidence  in  his  apparatus  being  suited  to  the 
task.  The  magnet  was  secured,  and  divers  went  down  to 
blow  open  the  side  of  the  barge  to  permit  the  magnet  to 
reach  the  cargo. 

The  magnet  was  lowered  and  was  found  to  work  with 
as  much  ease  and  simplicity  as  under  conventional  con- 
ditions in  the  steel-works.  It  was  plunged  into  the  hold  of 
the  invisible  craft,  and  subsequently  the  sea-bed  on  either 
side  was  swept  therewith.  So  successfully  and  completely 
did  it  fulfil  its  unusual  task  that  every  ingot  was  retrieved, 
and  that  within  a  very  short  time.  The  sinking  of  the 
barge  occasioned  little  damage  beyond  a  slight  delay  in 
the  delivery  of  the  material,  which  was  valued  at  £150 — 
$750 — per  ton.  True,  the  barge  was  lost,  but  that  was 
an  insignificant  disaster,  and  but  poor  recompense  for  the 
expenditure  by  the  enemy  of  a  torpedo  costing  possibly 
£1,000— $5,000. 

The  success  of  the  magnet  in  this  instance  has  been 
responsible  for  its  utilization  in  other  fields  of  submarine 
endeavour.  A  freighter  was  sunk  with  a  valuable  steel 
cargo  aboard.  The  vessel  was  examined  and  found  to 
have  settled  upon  an  even  keel.  Divers  descended  and 
opened  the  hatchways,  while  sections  of  the  decks  were 
cut  away  to  expose  the  cargo.  The  magnet  was  then  brought 
into  action,  and  the  cargo  unloaded  as  readily  as  if  moored 
alongside  the  dock.  This  success  in  the  open  sea  has  been 
responsible  for  the  salvage  of  similar  cargoes  which  have 
been  lost  around  our  coasts.  So  far  as  the  Pickett-West 
lifting-magnet  is  concerned,  there  is  no  obstacle  to  its  use 
in  this  field  so  long  as  sufficient  swing  can  be  imparted  to 
the  suspended  apparatus  to  ensure  sweeping  of  the  wreck, 
and  up  to  the  depth  corresponding  to  the  pressure  of  the 
insulation  in  the  coil  drum.  Seeing  that  this  is  introduced 
at  a  pressure  of  120  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  the  lifting- 
magnet  can  be  safely  used  in  water  up  to  a  depth  of  approxi- 
mately 250  feet  without  the  insulation  collapsing  under 
the  imposed  water-pressure,  and  this  is  a  depth  far  beyond 
that  at  which  a  diver  can  work.     But,  taking  the  wrecks 


THE  LIFTING-MAGNET  233 

lying    within    water    accessible    to    the    diver,    appreciable 
recovery  should  be  possible. 

It  is  generally  conceded,  in  view  of  the  success  which 
has  already  been  achieved,  that  there  is  a  promising  future 
for  the  apparatus  in  this  field  so  long  as  it  is  designed 
and  constructed  along  correct  lines.  The  cost  of  operations 
will  be  reduced  therewith  very  materially,  and  the  strain 
imposed  upon  human  effort  as  represented  by  the  diver 
will  be  decreased  very  markedly.  Instead  of  salvage  oper- 
ations being  confined  to  an  hour  or  two  daily,  according  to 
the  velocity  of  the  tides  and  currents,  it  will  be  possible 
to  continue  work  during  the  round  twenty-four  hours  so 
long  as  the  weather  is  propitious.  The  operator  will  be  able 
to  sweep  the  wreck  from  end  to  end,  as  well  as  to  scavenge 
the  sea-bed  by  swinging  his  magnet,  confident  in  the  know- 
ledge that  magnetic  metal  will  be  trapped  in  the  process 
for  haulage  to  the  surface.  Even  if  ships  should  prove 
impossible  of  recovery  intact  there  is  nothing  to  prevent 
their  reclamation  piecemeal.  Dynamite  will  reduce  the 
wreck  to  scrap  of  weight  and  size  within  the  lifting  capacity 
of  the  apparatus,  and  at  the  price  obtaining  for  such  junk 
the  expedient  should  prove  profitable.  So  we  should  be 
able  to  retrieve  a  certain  and  imposing  proportion  of  the 
wanton  waste  incurred  by  the  ruthless  attacks  of  the  enemy 
upon  our  sea-going  traffic. 

It  has  even  been  suggested  that  the  magnets  might  be 
employed  to  salvage  many  of  the  German  submarines  which 
we  have  sunk,  more  particularly  the  coastal  type  of  craft. 
These  were  relatively  small,  and  for  the  most  part  were 
sunk  in  comparatively  shallow  water.  In  the  water-logged 
condition  the  dead  load  to  be  handled  is  approximately 
800  tons.  If  desired  these  craft  could  be  lifted  to  the  surface 
intact,  or,  if  in  pieces,  retrieved  in  sections  for  sale  as  scrap. 
The  inventor  has  elaborated  his  plans,  which  involve  the 
suitable  disposition  of  a  certain  number  of  magnets  over 
the  sunken  submarines.  He  suggests  that  eight  magnets 
would  be  adequate  for  the  task.  Seeing  that  each  magnet 
has  a  pulling  power  of  250  pounds  per  square  inch  of  its 
surface,  the  aggregate  haul  which  could  be  brought  to 
bear  upon  the  submerged  craft  simultaneously  b}'  the  eight 
magnets  would  be  at  least  1,920  tons,  or  twice  the  total 
weight  of  the  submarine.     With  such  a  lifting  effort  avail- 


234  MILLIONS   FROM   WASTE 

able  it  should  be  possible  to  drag  the  wreck  from  even  the 
extremely  tenacious  North  Sea  mud.  The  question  arises, 
although  recovery  of  such  waste  is  admitted  to  offer  every 
attraction,  as  to  whether  the  German  submarines  are  worth 
the  trouble,  even  if  they  be  sold  as  scrap.  In  view  of  the 
price  which  the  surrendered  boats  realized  this  is  extremely 
doubtful,  although  experienced  salvage  engineers  admit  that 
even  if  prevailing  scrap  prices  were  obtained  the  venture 
would  prove  profitable,  that  is  in  the  strict  commercial 
sense. 

As  a  scavenger  for  magnetic  metals  the  lifting-magnet 
cannot  be  excelled.  It  is  far  more  thorough  than  hand- 
labour,  and  will  fulfil  its  mission  more  completely  than  any 
other  mechanically-operated  device  to  this  end.  Lowered 
to  twenty-four  inches  of  the  ground  it  may  be  swept,  or 
swung,  to  and  fro  in  the  certain  knowledge  that  any  stray 
scraps  of  iron  and  steel  will  readily  jump  the  intervening 
space  in  response  to  the  strong  magnetic  influence  exerted. 
In  this  manner  a  wide  area  can  be  completely  cleaned  of 
all  stray  iron  and  steel  fragments,  much  of  which  would 
otherwise  be  lost  within  a  few  moments. 

The  recognition  of  the  peculiar  qualities  of  magnetic 
attraction  has  led  to  an  interesting  development  which 
should  prove  capable  of  extensive  application  and  to  distinct 
commercial  advantage  in  our  steel-works.  As  is  well  known, 
the  slag  is  run  off  separately  to  be  dumped.  But  this  slag 
often  carries  an  appreciable  quantity  of  metal  in  a  divided 
state.  Hitherto  this  has  been  wasted,  but  it  has  been 
found  that,  if  the  slag  be  broken  up,  by  the  aid  of  a  magnet 
and  "  skull-cracker  "  ball,  and  the  magnet  be  swept  over 
the  mass,  that  the  fugitive  metal  can  be  retrieved  and  in 
sufficient  quantities  as  to  render  the  operation  profitable. 

For  the  movement  of  iron  and  steel  in  factories  it  is 
difficult  to  excel.  A  consignment  of  kegs  of  nails,  bolts, 
nuts,  screws,  or  some  other  small  articles  requires  removal 
to  or  from  store,  or  to  vehicle.  Under  normal  conditions 
the  practice  would  be,  either  to  stack  them  on  trolleys  or 
to  pack  and  sling  them  from  cranes,  the  loading  constituting 
the  adverse  factor  from  the  appreciable  time  it  takes.  If 
the  magnet  be  used  no  such  preliminaries  of  any  description 
are  necessary.  The  magnet  is  merely  lowered,  the  current 
switched  on,  and   the   next   moment  as  many  loaded  kegs 


THE  LIFTING-MAGNET  235 

as  can  squeeze  themselves  upon  the  face  of  the  magnet  may 
be  lifted.  The  attractive  effort  is  sufficient  to  exert  its 
influence  through  the  covers  of  the  kegs  to  act  upon  the 
metal  within.  Moreover,  if  the  kegs  be  small,  more  than 
one  layer  will  be  found  possible  of  removal  at  a  time,  in- 
asmuch as  the  depth  to  which  the  magnetic  influence  can 
be  exerted — "  digging  "  effort  as  it  is  called — has  been 
found  to  be  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  magnet  face. 

For  handling  metal  waste  in  the  form  of  turnings  or 
swarf  it  is  far  cheaper  and  quicker  than  any  other  known 
process.  When  the  magnet  is  dropped  upon  a  pile  of  such 
residue  and  is  then  raised,  it  will  tear  away  a  huge  chunk 
of  the  heap — a  ton  or  more  of  tousled  and  ragged  ribands 
of  steel  jostling  and  clinging  tightly  to  one  another  and  to 
the  magnet-face  like  a  swarm  of  bees  to  the  branch  of  a  tree. 
It  will  successfully  handle,  and  for  no  heavier  cost,  swarf 
which  defies  handling  by  any  other  means,  except  at  pro- 
hibitive expense.  At  a  certain  steel- works  in  the  North 
of  England  ten  tons  of  matted  steel  turnings  were  permitted 
to  stand  for  several  weeks  in  a  railway  truck  in  an  open 
siding.  When  it  was  decided  to  unload  the  vehicle  the 
turnings  were  found  to  have  rusted  and  to  have  settled  down 
into  as  tightly  packed  a  heap  as  could  be  imagined.  The 
normal  practice  was  for  men  to  shovel  such  material  with 
their  forks  into  the  charging  boxes,  but  they  found  that 
they  could  not  force  their  tools  into  this  formidable  heap. 
The  mass  was  surveyed  and  the  hopelessness  of  coping 
promptly  therewith  was  admitted.  Under  manual  labour 
the  job  would  occupy  several  days,  even  if  it  could  be 
successfully  handled  at  all,  upon  which  point  considerable 
doubt  prevailed. 

It  was  decided  to  try  the  magnet.  It  was  brought  along 
on  its  traveller  and  lowered  into  the  truck.  The  winding 
drum  was  set  going,  and  there  was  a  fearful  snapping  and 
snarling.  The  magnet  refused  to  release  its  hold,  while 
the  metal,  being  tightly  jammed  and  packed,  offered  a  stiff 
resistance  to  the  irresistible  attraction  of  the  magnet.  But, 
within  a  few  moments,  the  magnet  tore  itself  free  with  some 
3,360  lb.  of  the  tangled  rusted  steel  clinging  to  its  face.  Within 
six  minutes,  and  by  half-a-dozen  lifts,  the  vehicle  was  cleared 
of  its  ten  tons  of  scrap. 

While   the   circular   form    of    magnet    is    that   generally 


236  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

favoured,  variations  are  made  to  comply  with  different 
requirements.  Some  articles,  such  as  steel  rails,  pipes  and 
iron  rods,  from  their  distinctive  shape,  only  present  an 
extremely  limited  surface  upon  which  the  magnetic  pull 
can  be  exerted.  As  a  rule,  to  enable  such  articles  to  be 
handled  with  efficiency  and  speed,  two  magnets,  rectangular 
in  form,  and  spaced  a  short  distance  apart,  are  used.  The 
magnets  are  coupled  together,  but  maintained  a  specific 
distance  apart  by  spacing  bars,  while  they  work  in  unison. 
While  the  area  available  for  contact  upon  each  magnet  is 
somewhat  reduced,  as  compared  with  the  circular  type, 
this  deficiency  is  counterbalanced  by  the  ability  to  apply 
the  magnetic  lifting  effort  at  two  points. 

It  is  doubtful  whether  the  true  money-saving  possibi- 
lities of  the  lifting-magnet  are  really  appreciated.  The 
initial  outlaj^  may  appear  heavy — in  the  case  of  the  British 
magnet  to  which  I  have  referred  it  ranges  from  £150  to 
£600 — $750  to  $3,000 — according  to  dimensions,  face-form 
and  lifting  capacity — but  this  expense  is  readily  recouped. 
The  lifting-magnet  is  not  only  a  time-saver  but  it  enables 
given  work  to  be  accomplished  with  fewer  men.  In  some 
instances  this  displacement  of  labour  has  attained  striking 
proportions.  At  one  steel-works  a  lifting-magnet  of  52-in. 
diameter  was  installed  at  a  cost  of  £400 — $2,000.  It  is 
employed  for  handling  pig-iron,  and  in  this  work  has  dispensed 
with  fifty  men.  The  saving  in  wages,  which  its  introduction 
has  rendered  possible,  sufficed  to  defray  the  capital  cost 
of  the  apparatus  during  the  first  three  months  of  its  use. 

The  results  recorded  at  another  establishment  are 
equally  impressive.  A  36-in.  magnet  was  acquired,  and  for 
one  specific  duty — loading  trucks — was  employed  for  a 
total  of  twenty  hours  during  the  month.  Previous  to  its 
acquisition  this  work  was  carried  out  by  manual  labour, 
and  it  used  to  demand  the  combined  efforts  of  ten  men  for 
ten  hours  to  load  the  vehicle,  the  cost  being  £4 — $20.  With 
the  magnet  the  truck  is  now  loaded  in  two  hours  and  at  a 
cost  of  8s. — $2 — this  figure  being  inclusive  of  all  charges — 
electric  current,  depreciation,  interest,  labour,  etc.  In  the 
course  of  the  year  the  magnet  puts  in  240  hours  truck-loading, 
the  number  of  trucks  dealt  with  during  this  time  being  120. 
The  saving  effected  by  the  utilization  of  the  magnet  is  thus 
£3  12s. — $18 — per  truck  or  £437 — $2,185 — Per  year.    Seeing 


THE  LIFTING-MAGNET  287 

that  the  magnet  at  the  time  of  its  installation  cost  £150 — 
$750 — it  will  be  seen  that  it  pays  for  itself  approximately 
three  times  over  in  the  course  of  each  twelve  months,  and 
that  upon  one  single  range  of  duty  for  an  insignificant  period 
of  time. 

Under  manual  conditions  of  handling  scrap  and  at  the 
current  contract  trade  union  rate  the  cost  is  is.  4d. — 33 
cents — per  ton.  With  the  lifting-magnet,  including  labour 
and  depreciation,  the  cost  is  only  one  penny — 2  cents — per 
ton  for  this  work — a  reduction  of  is.  3d. — 31  cents — per 
ton  !  At  the  works  of  the  Stobie  Steel  Company,  Dunston- 
on-Tjme,  the  initial  cost  of  the  lifting-magnet  was  recovered 
during  the  first  four  months  it  was  used.  This  company 
declares  that  the  annual  saving  which  its  employment 
effects  is  £800 — $4,000. 

But  the  applications  of  the  magnet  are  not  confined 
to  lifting  and  carrying  operations.  As  an  instrument  for 
breaking  up  masses  of  steel  too  large  to  be  handled  con- 
veniently, or  to  be  passed  into  the  cupola  of  the  furnace, 
it  cannot  be  excelled,  either  in  point  of  efficiency,  safety, 
or  economy.  Breaking-up  is  carried  out  by  what  is  known 
as  the  "  skull-cracker,"  which  comprises  a  roughly-cast 
ball  of  steel  which  may  weigh  as  much  as  22,400,  27,000  or 
even  36,000  lb.  This  is  picked  up  by  the  magnet  and  lifted 
to  the  desired  height.  The  current  is  then  switched  off, 
releasing  the  ball  to  fall  and  to  strike  the  scrap-boiler  or 
some  other  cumbrous  piece  of  junk  a  terrific  blow. 

While  the  "  skull-cracker  "  has  been  in  vogue  for  many 
years  with  mechanically  operated  devices,  and  so  is  not 
peculiar  to  the  magnet,  yet  this  latest  development  repre- 
sents the  highest  achievement  yet  attained  in  this  particular 
direction.  Under  mechanical  conditions  from  four  to  six 
men  are  required  to  carry  out  the  work  successfully.  With 
the  magnet  and  ball  the  task  can  be  fulfilled  by  two  men 
— if  exigencies  so  demand  it  can  be  completed  single-handed 
by  the  crane-magnet  operator — while  the  time  occupied 
in  such  essential  destruction  is  very  much  less,  more  effi- 
ciently accomplished  and  with  complete  safety,  because 
under  mechanical  conditions  breaking-up  is  generally  re- 
garded as  highly  dangerous  work.  A  further  advantage 
is  offered  by  this  system.  The  "  skull-cracker "  can  be 
lifted   and   dropped   alternately   until   the   scrap   has   been 


238  MILLIONS   FROM   WASTE 

reduced  to  suitably  sized  pieces,  and  then  the  magnet,  dis- 
daining the  ball,  can  pick  up  the  pieces  of  junk  to  bear  them 
away  to  the  furnaces  without  any  delay. 

Despite  the  forward  strides  which  have  been  made  in 
regard  to  the  adoption  of  the  magnet  in  the  British  iron 
and  steel  trades  during  the  past  four  years,  this  system  of 
handling  ferrous  metals  is  still  in  its  infancy.  It  has  been 
neglected  far  too  long.  Yet  it  is  a  force  which  in  the  future 
must  play  an  increasing  important  role,  because  it  is  gene- 
rally admitted  that,  to  offset  the  higher  wages  incidental 
to  production,  it  is  imperative  for  manufacturers  to  exploit 
fully  every  possible  time,  labour,  and  money-saving  device. 
The  magnet  is  one  of  the  most  attractive  contributory 
factors  to  this  end,  especially  in  connection  with  the  handling 
of  iron  and  steel  waste,  that  has  yet  been  contrived. 


CHAPTER   XVI 

RECLAIMING  321,000,000  GALLONS  OF  LIQUID  FUEL 

FROM  COAL 

It  has  been  said,  doubtless  with  a  good  deal  of  truth,  that 
Britain  owes  her  manufacturing  prosperity  to  her  abundant 
domestic  resources  of  fuel.  But,  in  the  exploitation  of 
our  coal  reserves,  we  emulate  the  rat  in  the  corn-bin.  We 
waste  quite  as  much,  if  not  more,  than  we  ever  use.  The 
country  around  our  collieries  is  disfigured  with  huge  dumps, 
among  which  are  thousands  of  tons  of  what  is  really  low- 
grade  fuel.  Occasionally  a  tip-heap  will  catch  fire,  to  burn 
sullenly  for  weeks  and  months.  One  such  large  dump 
in  the  United  States  burned  uninterruptedly  for  years.  This 
would  not  be  possible  if  there  were  not  present  a  large 
volume  of  combustible  matter — coal — associated  with  the 
so-called  useless  material. 

The  colliery  tip-heaps,  while  formidable  in  the  aggregate, 
and  representing  a  crushing  indictment  against  our  so-called 
advanced  scientific  attainments,  merely  constitute  one,  and 
a  minor,  tangible  illustration  of  the  great  coal-waste  issue. 
No  matter  in  what  direction  we  may  turn  in  this  colossal 
industry,  we  find  evidences  of  improvidence,  and  stupendous 
losses  in  varying  degree. 

It  is  a  matter  for  speculation  whether  any  other  raw 
material  is  so  prolific  of  residuals  as  coal.  Oil  is  probably 
the  solitary  exception,  but  then  petroleum  is  closely  allied 
to  the  solid  fuel.  But  refuse  in  regard  to  coal  is  equally 
ambiguous.  The  wastes  vary  so  widely  in  nature,  while 
each  grade  of  residue  possesses  its  individual  possibilities. 
We  are  disposed  to  pride  ourselves  upon  the  big  strides 
we  have  made  in  our  exploitation  of  these  residues  but, 

239 


240  MILLIONS  FROM  WASTE 

as  a  matter  of  fact,  we  have  barely  touched  the  Aladdin's 
lamp  which  it  represents. 

To  render  full  justice  to  the  coal- waste  issue  in  all  its 
kaleidoscopic  forms  would  absorb  many  volumes.  The 
subject  is  so  vast  and  complex.  It  is  my  intention,  within 
the  scope  of  this  chapter,  to  confine  myself  to  one  specific 
substance  derived  from  coal,  one  which  we  persistently 
declined  to  consider  in  its  real  aspect  until  the  fight  for 
national  existence  applied  the  sledge-hammer  blows  to  drive 
into  our  heads  that  we  were  guilty  of  criminal  neglect. 
Why  we  should  have  required  this  drastic  force  to  compel 
us  to  admit  our  indifference  towards  a  great  national  asset 
it  is  difficult  to  explain.  Our  most  formidable  rival  in  trade 
had  been  sparing  no  effort  for  years  to  achieve  an  over- 
whelming industrial  triumph  therewith  and  to  our  dis- 
comfiture. 

As  I  have  previously  remarked,  Germany  revelled  in 
our  junk  piles  and  rubbish-heaps.  The  French  chiffonnier 
never  raked  over  the  contents  of  a  Parisian  dust-bin  more 
assiduously  than  did  the  German  rummage  among  our 
waste  dumps.  He  was  not  too  proud  to  bear  awa}'  what 
we  disdained  and  rejected.  It  served  as  food  to  maintain 
the  colossal  plants,  equipped  with  elaborate  and  costly 
machinery,  which  he  laid  down.  We,  on  our  part,  were 
not  backward  in  paying  him,  directly  and  indirectly,  to 
work  up  our  wastes,  especially  those  from  coal,  and  were 
ever  ready  to  acquire  the  articles  manufactured  therefrom 
and  at  any  price  he  felt  disposed  to  quote. 

While,  to  a  certain  degree,  we  have  become  wiser  in  our 
generation,  and  are  handling  our  coal  resources  and  the 
residuals  resulting  therefrom  with  less  prodigality,  we  are 
still  woefully  improvident  in  this  field.  The  degree  of  waste, 
despite  the  reforms  introduced,  has  become  accentuated 
essentially  because  of  the  increased  magnitude  of  this  industry. 
The  blind  adherence  to  typically  British  methods  and  ideas 
has  led  to  some  striking  anomalies  which  to  other  nations 
must  appear  almost  incredible.  For  instance,  the  coining  of 
the  high-speed,  internal  combustion  motor  emphasized 
the  need  for  a  volatile  liquid  fuel.  Experience  proved  the 
hydro-carbon,  petrol,  to  be  most  eminently  adapted  to 
the  purpose.  But  Britain,  as  every  one  knows,  has  so  far 
proved  to  be  as  barren  of  paying  petroleum  deposits  as  is 


LIQUID   FUEL  FROM   COAL  241 

the  Sahara  of  cornfields.  So,  as  we  could  not  produce 
petrol,  we  decided  to  buy  it  from  abroad,  and  continue  to 
do  so  to  this  day. 

Yet  we  need  never  have  bought  a  single  gallon  from  a 
foreign  country,  to  keep  our  huge  fleets  of  motor-omnibuses, 
taxi-cabs,  touring  cars,  lorries,  vans,  agricultural  tractors, 
and  motor-boats  moving.  If  we  were  as  wideawake  as  we 
ought  to  be  we  should  cease  to  buy  a  further  pennyworth 
from  beyond  the  confines  of  the  Empire  forthwith,  turning 
the  millions  sterling  we  spent  annually  in  this  connection 
into  the  pockets  of  our  own  workers  and  industries.  It 
would  not  involve  the  withdrawal  of  a  single  vehicle,  and 
we  should  have  the  satisfaction  of  knowing  that  we  were 
absolutely  independent  of  the  foreigner  in  a  matter  of  most 
vital  concern   to  the  community — transport. 

The  domestic  analogue  to  imported  petrol  is  benzol, 
the  volatile  hydrocarbon  coaxed  from  our  old  friend,  King 
Coal.  From  the  motoring  point  of  view  this  derivative 
from  the  mineral  fuel  is  capable  of  fulfilling  every  purpose 
in  regard  to  transport  which  petrol  can  or  ever  will  do. 
Why  we  still  refrain  from  setting  out  to  recover  this  spirit 
to  the  uttermost  ounce,  notwithstanding  the  lessons  taught 
by  the  war,  is  beyond  comprehension.  There  are  some 
kinks  in  British  mentality  which  defy  all  unravelling.  The 
exploitation  of  liquid  fuel  from  coal  is  one  of  them. 

If  we  turn  to  the  trading  figures  for  the  fiscal  year  1913 
we  find  that  we  imported  petrol  to  the  extent  of  100,588,017 
gallons  for  which  we  paid  £3,803,397 — $19,016,985.  This 
money  was  sent  out  of  the  country.  Even  our  Dominions 
did  not  reap  much  benefit  from  our  liberality.  Turning 
to  the  other  side  of  the  account  we  find  that  during  the 
self-same  period  we  sold  to  foreign  purchasers  30,415  gallons 
of  motor  spirit  made  in  the  United  Kingdom,  and  valued 
at  £1,420 — $7,100  !  Our  delightfully  unbusinesslike  way 
of  doing  things  left  us  £3,801,977 — $19,009,885 — on  the 
wrong  side,  when  really  we  ought  to  have  shown  a  substantial 
balance  in  our  favour. 

Benzol  is  not  only  essential  to  the  motor  industry,  but 
it  is  absolutely  indispensable  to  numerous  other  trades. 
Without  it  the  vast  range  of  synthetic  colours,  marketed 
by  the  German  firms,  could  never  have  been  attained.  Had 
Germany  embarked  upon  an  economic  instead  of  a  military 

16 


242  MILLIONS   FROM   WASTE 

war  she  could  have  forced  the  whole  world  into  abject 
surrender  within  a  few  months  by  withholding  supplies 
of  these  dye-stuffs,  medicinal  preparations,  synthetic  drugs, 
disinfectants,  and  chemicals.  This  is  borne  out  by  the 
abnormal  prices  realized  from  the  sale  of  the  small  quantity 
of  dyes  which  were  smuggled  across  the  Atlantic  to  the 
United  States  of  America  by  the  commercial  submarine 
Deutschland.  One  small  box  containing  ioo  lb.  of  sky-blue 
colouring  realized  £190  or  38s. — $950  or  $9.50 — a  pound  ! 
Before  the  war  the  self-same  dye-stuff  could  be  purchased 
readily  for  2s. — 50  cents — a  pound. 

By  making  the  plunge  along  industrial  lines  Germany 
could  have  brought  our  cotton,  woollen,  silk  and  other 
textiles,  paper,  paint — in  short,  every  trade  into  which 
colourings  enter — to  a  dead  standstill  within  a  very  short 
time.  The  United  States  of  America,  France,  Italy,  and 
other  countries  would  have  been  forced  into  a  similar  con- 
dition of  stagnation  and  disaster.  Germany,  by  virtue 
of  her  unlimited  supplies  of  these  essentials  to  contemporary 
industry,  would  have  been  in  the  position  to  have  supplied 
the  whole  world — upon  her  own  terms.  Fortunately  for 
us,  a  bloodless  victory  to  secure  world-wide  domination 
did  not  appeal  to  the  Teuton  temperament. 

The  official  attitude,  so  far  as  this  country  is  concerned, 
towards  the  reclamation  of  the  volatile  liquid  constituent,  or 
waste,  from  coal  has  always  been  one  of  negation.  Contrast 
this  tendency  with  that  obtaining  in  Germany,  which  set 
out  to  support  private  enterprise  by  installing  a  compre- 
hensive plant  upon  Government  property  to  win  6,000,000 
gallons  of  benzol  a  year  from  state-owned  and  state-mined 
coal.  The  British  official  attitude  is  additionally  remarkable 
when  it  is  borne  in  mind  that  adequate  supplies  of  this 
material  are  absolutely  imperative  to  the  maintenance  of 
our  national  security,  because  benzol  constitutes  the  back- 
bone of  modern  high  explosives. 

The  recovery  of  benzol  is  every  whit  as  essential  to  the 
community  of  these  islands  as  is  the  provision  of  drinking 
water.  It  may  appear  to  be  Draconic  to  compel  the  delivery 
of  the  last  ounce  of  benzol  from  the  coal  or  gas  we  burn, 
but  there  are  many  other  enactments  in  force  of  a  more 
exasperating  character,  and  which  are  productive  of  extremely 
little    benefit   either   to   the   individual   or   the   community. 


LIQUID  FUEL  FROM  COAL  243 

In  this  particular  instance  no  one  would  suffer  in  any  way, 
because,  while  the  whole  trend  of  scientific  thought  is  towards 
the  thorough  recovery  of  this  valuable  liquid  fuel  and  in- 
dustrial weapon,  it  does  not  hesitate  to  demonstrate  how 
the  desired  end  can  be  obtained  without  inflicting  the  slightest 
hardship  upon  the  citizen. 

The  steel  trade  demands  huge  quantities  of  coke  to 
conduct  its  operations.  The  carbon  residue  from  coal  is 
preferable  to  the  raw  mineral  fuel.  To  meet  this  technical 
requirement  special  ovens  have  had  to  be  evolved  to  turn 
the  coal  into  coke.  Yet  for  years  we  carried  out  this  con- 
version and  allowed  the  substance  thrown  off  in  the  process 
to  run  to  waste.  We  even  continue  to  do  this  to-day. 
It  was  found  that  the  coke  could  be  obtained  more  readily 
and  easily,  as  well  as  cheaply,  by  means  of  what  is  known 
as  the  bee-hive  oven.  This  coke-producer  attracted  the 
attention  of  the  interests  concerned  because  it  was  not  only 
cheap  to  install  but  inexpensive  to  maintain  and  renew, 
while  it  facilitated  compliance  with  the  fluctuating  demands 
for  the  coke  which  naturally  is  due  to  the  alternating  periods 
of  depression  and  prosperity  in  the  steel  trade.  But  we 
have  no  monument  to  waste  comparable  with  the  bee-hive 
oven.  However,  it  became  so  firmly  entrenched  as  to  prove 
wellnigh  resistant  to  progress  when  science  came  along 
with  an  improved  system  yielding  a  coke  of  equal  quality, 
but  which  had  the  additional  recommendation  of  enabling 
all  the  other  products  arising  from  distillation  and  which 
formerly  were  permitted  to  escape,  to  be  recovered. 

The  virtues  of  the  new  method  were  conceded,  but  the 
heavier  initial  expenditure  which  it  entailed  was  regarded 
as  an  insurmountable  adverse  feature,  especially  as  the 
Britisher  gave  expression  to  another  peculiar  trait  in  his 
character — would  the  revenue  derived  from  the  by-products 
more  than  offset  the  increased  costs,  capital  charges  and 
maintenance  expenses  ?  One  disturbing  factor  demanded 
particularly  careful  study.  When  the  call  for  coke  declines, 
and  a  certain  number  of  the  ovens  have  to  be  closed  down, 
they  cannot  be  brought  into  re-activity  upon  the  revival 
in  the  steel  trade  without  an  overhaul. 

In  restoring  the  ovens  heavy  expense  is  incurred.  The 
antiquated  and  wasteful  bee-hive  oven  can  be  renovated 
at  a   trifling  price,   but  the  modern  by-products   recovery 


244  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

oven  entails  far  heavier  expense  before  the  resumption  of 
operations.  The  charge  varies  according  to  the  care  which 
has  been  bestowed  upon  its  maintenance,  but,  if  this  has 
not  been  conducted  along  careful  lines  it  may  easily  incur  an 
expenditure  ranging  up  to  15  per  cent,  of  the  original  cost 
of  the  plant.  This  charge,  unless  defrayed  out  of  the  renewals 
account,  must  be  carried  to  capital.  In  view  of  this  circum- 
stance the  general  practice  has  been  to  install  the  by-product 
system  to  take  care  of  the  constant  load — the  output  of 
coke  to  the  degree  below  which  it  cannot  fall  even  in  periods 
of  extreme  depression — and  to  utilize  the  obsolete  bee-hive 
oven  to  take  care  of  the  fluctuations  from  the  irreducible 
minimum  to  the  maximum.  This  margin  being  extremely 
wide  naturally,  the  bee-hive  still  holds  sway,  and  so  continues 
its  wasteful  reign  unchecked. 

To  extend  their  field  of  activity  and  to  provide  an  outlet 
for  the  products  of  their  brains  the  Germans  made  an  astute 
commercial  move.  They  expressed  their  readiness  to  equip 
the  British  coking  plants  with  their  modern  by-product 
recovery  system  on  condition  that  they  were  to  be  at  liberty 
to  acquire  the  liquid  residual — benzol.  The  suggestion 
found  certain  favour  in  British  eyes.  The  benzol  was  a 
drug  on  the  home  market,  so  its  shipment  to  Germany  was 
regarded  as  the  solution  of  a  perplexing  problem.  In  this 
manner  Germany  secured  the  necessary  raw  materials  from 
the  British  scrap-heap  to  feed  her  dye  industry  and  to  pile 
up  her  reserves  of  high  explosives  against  the  day  when 
the  gauntlet  should  be  thrown  down.  There  is  a  tendency 
in  certain  quarters  to  assail  the  cunning  competitor,  but 
are  we  rather  not  to  blame  for  our  own  extreme  shortsighted- 
ness, lack  of  initiative,  and  indolence  ? 

The  coking-ovens,  however,  only  absorb  a  portion  of 
our  total  output  of  coal,  the  annual  average  of  which  may 
be  set  down  at  approximately  260,000,000  tons.  Subtracting 
60,000,000  tons  as  the  export  figure,  we  are  left  with  a  round 
200,000,000  tons  consumed  at  home.  Of  this  figure  a  round 
100,000,000  tons  is  consumed  during  the  year  in  the  domestic 
fire-grate. 

We  all  revel  in  the  blazing  fire  in  our  rooms  during  the 
winter,  but  do  we  reckon  on  the  cost  ?  The  volume  ol  heat 
thrown  into  the  room  is  but  a  trifling  proportion  of  that 
emitted  by  the  glowing  coal.     The  greater  part  flies  up  the 


LIQUID   FUEL  FROM   COAL  245 

chimney,  together  with  all  the  benzol,  ammonia,  and  other 
valuable  constituents  of  the  fuel.  Immense  volumes  of 
soot  pour  forth  from  the  chimneys  to  pollute  the  atmos- 
phere, disfigure  buildings  and  monuments,  while  the 
damage  wrought  within  the  rooms  to  fabrics,  curtains  and 
other  embellishments  runs  into  millions  sterling  during 
the  year. 

Could  this  waste  be  avoided  ?  Certainly.  The  domestic 
fire-grate  does  not  possess  a  single  virtue.  It  should  be 
scrapped  forthwith.  Coal,  as  a  household  fuel,  should  be 
prohibited.  It  should  be  carbonized.  Coke,  when  burned 
under  the  most  advantageous  conditions,  throws  off  as  much, 
if  not  more  heat,  and  can  be  induced  to  shed  practically 
the  whole  thereof  into  the  apartment.  As  the  alternative 
to  coke  we  might  rely  exclusively  on  gas,  releasing  the  whole 
of  the  carbon  residue,  approximately  70  per  cent,  of  which 
results  from  the  distillation  of  every  ton  of  coal  for  industry. 
If  we  presume  an  average  of  10,000  cubic  feet  derivable 
from  every  ton  of  coal,  then  we  find  that  the  100,000,000 
tons  burned  annually  in  the  household  grates  would  give 
us  1,000,000,000,000 — one  billion — cubic  feet  of  gas,  the 
whole  of  which  is  at  present  being  lost  up  the  chimney. 
From  this  enormous  volume  of  gas,  each  10,000  cubic  feet 
of  which  contains  on  the  average  two  gallons  of  benzol 
capable  of  reclamation,  we  could,  if  we  were  sufficiently 
energetic  and  enterprising,  obtain  200,000,000  gallons  of 
benzol — twice  the  petrol  imports  for  the  year  19 13.  In 
comparison  with  what  liquid  fuel  we  could  derive  from  our 
coal  the  actual  41,000,000  gallons  secured  to-day  certainly 
appears  to  be  trifling. 

Our  methods  of  burning  coal  in  the  home,  which  is 
appallingly  wasteful,  is  equalled  by  the  general  folly  investing 
our  system  of  gas  supply,  which  is  equally  improvident, 
simply  because  we  prefer  to  cling  to  the  obsolete  order  of 
things  rather  than  to  march  with  progress.  Years  ago,  to 
protect  gas-consumers,  a  standard  of  value  was  established. 
The  gas  had  to  comply  with  a  certain  candle-power  standard. 
The  unit  thus  was  one  01  luminosity.  Such  a  system  was 
satisfactory  in  days  gone  by,  when  the  practice  was  to  use 
a  burner  and  open  flame  of  the  fish-tail  or  bat's-wing  shape. 
Then  some  method  of  standardizing  gas  according  to  its 
luminous  intensity  undoubtedly  was  imperative. 


246  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

But  judgment  of  gas  by  its  luminosity  with  an  open 
burner  is  effete.  It  became  relegated  to  the  limbo  of  things 
that  were  by  the  discovery  of  Welsbach,  which  effected  a 
complete  and  wonderful  revolution  in  gas  illumination. 
His  invention  supplied  the  means  of  securing  brilliant 
illumination  with  heat.  This  may  sound  paradoxical,  but 
is  readily  explained.  The  particles  of  the  nitrates  of  the 
rare  earths,  thoria  and  ceria,  which  enter  into  the  composition 
of  the  incandescent  gas  mantle,  will  not  emit  light  until 
they  have  been  raised  to  a  high  degree  of  incandescence. 
This  can  only  be  achieved  by  using  the  mantle  in  conjunction 
with  an  atmospheric,  or  Bunsen,  burner. 

This  invention  rendered  it  no  longer  necessary  for  the 
gas  to  carry  the  constituents  which  contributed  to  luminosity, 
among  which  was  benzol.  With  the  mantle  they  are  super- 
fluous :  in  fact  are  deleterious.  What  is  required  is  a  gas 
rich  in  the  constituents  contributing  to  heat.  Coal-gas, 
or  as  it  is  more  familiarly  called,  town-gas,  is  rich  in  these 
two  essentials.  They  are  hydrogen  and  methane  or  marsh- 
gas.  When  burned  under  suitable  conditions  they  are 
capable  of  giving  off  intense  heat,  and  the  higher  the  degree 
of  incandescence  to  which  the  rare  earths  entering  into  the 
composition  of  the  mantle  can  be  raised,  the  more  brilliant 
the  illumination. 

Consequently  the  time  has  arrived  when  the  standard- 
ization of  gas  according  to  luminous  power  should  be  thrown 
overboard  in  favour  of  one  based  upon  calorific  value.  This 
was  introduced  to  a  certain  degree  as  a  temporary  expedient 
during  the  war,  but  it  should  now  be  made  rigid.  Signs 
of  awakening  to  the  true  state  of  affairs  are  apparent.  The 
research  committee  appointed  to  investigate  this  question 
has  recommended  that  gas  should  be  sold  according  to  its 
calorific  value,  and  that  all  gas-consuming  appliances  should 
be  adapted  to  the  new  order  of  things. 

Should  legislation  be  passed  endorsing  these  recommenda- 
tions it  will  be  possible  for  further  huge  quantities  of  benzol 
to  be  recovered  from  our  coal,  or  rather  the  gas  derived 
from  the  volume  of  coal  annually  absorbed  for  gas  production. 
It  is  the  benzol  and  toluene  which  impart  the  luminous 
intensity  to  the  gas,  but  which  are  unnecessary  for  the 
production  of  heat.  At  the  present  moment  the  quantity 
of  benzol  reclaimed  from  the  coal  absorbed  by  the  gas-works 


LIQUID   FUEL  FROM   COAL  247 

is  approximately  21,000,000  gallons  a  year — a  fraction  of 
what  it   might  be. 

We  may  safely  assume  that  of  the  270,000,000  tons  of  coal 
we  draw  from  our  collieries  every  year,  at  least  160,000,000 
tons  are  capable  of  such  treatment  as  will  enable  the  volatile 
liquid  fuel  to  be  recovered.  Upon  the  basis  of  two  gallons 
per  ton  of  coal  this  would  represent  320,000,000  gallons 
of  benzol,  of  which  huge  quantity  all  but  41,000,000  gallons 
are  being  lost  under  contemporary  conditions.  The  value 
of  this  spirit  at  the  moment  may  be  set  down  at  approximately 
2s. — 50  cents — per  gallon.  Thus  we  are  deliberately 
throwing  away  £27,900,000 — -$139,500,000 — a  year.  It  is 
being  permitted  to  vanish  into  thin  air.  This  figure  serves 
to  bring  home  what  the  losses  arising  from  the  neglect  of 
waste  really  represent,  and  also  reveals  our  extraordinary 
lack  of  imagination  and  enterprise. 

Were  we  to  recover  the  whole  of  the  benzol  content  of 
coal  we  should  not  only  be  able  to  satisfy  the  whole  of  the 
needs,  aggregating  about  150,000,000  gallons  a  year,  of  the 
domestic  motor  industry,  but  we  should  be  able  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  other  industries  to  which  benzol 
is  indispensable.  There  would  be  no  need  to  grow  appre- 
hensive concerning  our  coal-tar  dye  industry  and  the 
manufacture  of  other  products  dependent  upon  materials 
derived  from  coal.  The  British  dye  industry  is  in  its 
infancy.  At  the  moment  its  benzol  requirements  are  modest, 
being  approximately  4,000,000  gallons  a  year.  But  it  is 
an  industry  which,  given  full  opportunity,  promises  to 
thrive  and  to  expand  amazingly,  and  so  one  may  safely 
anticipate  that  its  benzol  needs  will  advance  by  leaps  and 
bounds. 

Moreover,  one  must  not  forget  that,  as  yet,  benzol  itself 
is  but  little  understood,  because  it  has  not  received  the 
attention  it  deserves  from  the  chemist.  If  we  decide  to 
exploit  our  coal  to  the  extent  which  prudence  dictates, 
the  wizards  of  the  laboratory  will  be  encouraged  to  embark 
upon  further  original  research,  and  it  is  quite  possible  that 
they  will  reveal  other  and  equally  promising  applications 
for  the  spirit  of  coal. 

While  domestic  users  have  not  been  fully  alive  to  the 
possibilities  of  British  benzol  other  countries,  notably  France, 
were  eager  buyers  of  what  we  ourselves  failed  to  appreciate. 


248  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

We  need  not  sacrifice  this  export  trade  :  rather  we  should 
be  able  to  cultivate  and  to  expand  it  to  a  very  pronounced 
degree. 

In  view  of  the  part  which  benzol  played  in  the  war  one 
hopes  that  the  Government  will  consider  the  situation  in 
a  more  enlightened  spirit.  The  circumstance  that  we  might 
be  able  to  retrieve  a  round  £28,000,000 — $140,000,000 — 
a  year  should  offer  ever}/  inducement  towards  compulsory 
modernization  of  methods  in  this  particular  province. 
Benzol  should  be  made  a  national  issue.  To  compel  the 
use  of  coke,  instead  of  coal,  in  the  household,  would  go  a 
long  way  to  relieve  the  coking-ovens  and  other  distillation 
plants  of  all  apprehensions  of  glut  accumulations  of  coke, 
and  would  tend  to  steady  the  output  of  this  fuel,  as  well 
as  to  bring  about  the  abolition  of  the  wickedly  wasteful 
bee-hive  oven.  Our  gas  standardization  system  should  be 
overhauled  to  ensure  the  sale  of  gas  by  its  calorific  rather 
than  its  luminous  value.  The  country  might  even  do  worse 
than  to  nationalize  benzol,  taking  over  the  whole  of  the 
output  as  a  corollary  to  the  compulsory  distillation  of  all 
bituminous  coal.  As  the  alternative  it  might  undertake 
to  purchase  what  the  trade  could  not  sell,  for  naval  pur- 
poses, inasmuch  as  in  the  Senior  Service  the  consumption 
of  petroleum  oils  has  reached  an  impressive  figure  from  the 
increasing  use  of  oil  fuel,  practically  the  whole  of  which  at 
present  has  to  be  imported. 


CHAPTER   XVII 

FERTILIZERS   FROM   WASTES 

Nourishment  is  as  essential  to  the  land  as  it  is  to  the  animal 
kingdom.  This  is  particularly  so  in  countries,  such  as  the 
British  Isles,  where  the  land  has  been  worked  assiduously, 
year  after  year,  for  centuries.  The  co-relation  between 
fertilizers  and  crop  yields  is  too  obvious  to  demand  other 
than  mere  mention.  The  main  problem,  in  such  circum- 
stances, is  to  secure  sufficient  quantities  of  the  nutritive 
constituents  necessary,  and  at  a  price  which  shall  render 
their  utilization  profitable  to  the  farmer,  and  enable  the 
resultant  food  products  to  be  brought  within  the  reach  of 
the  public  at  an  attractive  figure. 

The  worship  of  hygiene  and  the  introduction  of  practices 
conducing  to  the  enhanced  health  and  welfare  of  the  com- 
munity have  served  to  deprive  the  land  of  a  heavy  proportion 
of  that  food  which,  under  primitive  conditions,  it  freely 
receives.  Furthermore,  the  contemporary  agriculturist  is 
not  content  with  receiving  from  the  land  just  what  Nature, 
if  left  to  herself,  is  disposed  to  contribute.  He  practises 
forced  or  intensive  measures,  and  in  so  doing  naturally 
accelerates  and  accentuates  the  exhaustion  of  the  soil. 

In  so  far  as  these  islands  are  concerned — it  was  equally 
applicable  to  other  countries  similarly  affected — the  stringency 
in  natural  manures  was  aggravated  by  the  acquisition  of 
all  available  horse-power  for  the  battle-fronts  as  well  as  the 
need  to  husband  straw  for  military  foraging  purposes.  So, 
to  ensure  the  safety  and  yield  of  his  crops,  the  farmer  has 
been  compelled  to  fall  back  upon  divers  substances,  natural 
as  well  as  chemical,  or  as  they  are  more  popularly  termed, 
artificial  manures,  although  the  word  "  artificial  "  in  this 
interpretation    is    somewhat    ambiguous,    seeing    that    the 

249 


250  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

materials  employed,  for  the  most  part,  enter  into  the  scheme 
of  Nature. 

Under  normal  conditions  British  soil  was  liberally  fed 
with  these  chemical  fertilizers,  especially  of  superphosphate, 
nitrate  of  soda,  and  potash.  And  for  all  of  these  three 
indispensable  soil-foods  we  were  dependent  upon  foreign 
sources  of  supply,  which  naturally  suffered  interruption 
more  or  less  as  a  result  of  the  outbreak  of  hostilities.  During 
1913  we  imported  970,185  tons  of  these  manuring  agents, 
for  which  we  paid  £3,333,612 — $16,668,060.  These  figures  do 
not  include  potash,  appreciable  quantities  of  which,  drawn 
from  the  German  mines,  were  used.  But,  taking  the  other 
two  materials,  phosphate  occupied  first  place  in  point  of 
quantity  with  539,016  tons  valued  at  £874,166— $4,370,830 — 
while  the  Chilian  nitrate  claimed  premier  position  in  value 
at  £1,490,669 — $7,453,345 — for  which  we  received  140,926 
tons. 

Owing  to  the  availability  of  the  foreign  manures  there 
was  a  tendency  to  turn  a  blind  eye  to  our  own  producing 
capacity  in  regard  to  plant-foods  of  the  chemical  order. 
But  such  an  attitude  was  quite  in  keeping  with  the  British 
character  ;  we  preferred  to  pay  compliments,  in  the  form 
of  money,  to  other  countries  at  the  expense  of  our  own. 
With  war  we  learned  the  folly  of  our  ways  and  received  an 
awakening,  rude  but  fruitful. 

Of  the  artificial  fertilizers  essential  to  plant  life  we  can 
supply  all  with  the  possible  exception  of  the  superphosphate, 
although  in  this  instance  we  are  striving  to  develop  our 
home  resources.  Chilian  nitrate  may  be  superseded  by  the 
atmospheric  nitrates  :  we  can  derive  all  the  potash  we  desire 
by  the  observance  of  the  necessary  care  and  the  lessons 
which  science  in  its  various  phases  is  able  to  extend.  Possibly 
the  results  may  not  be  so  prolific  as  when  the  imported 
articles  are  utilized,  but  this  is  merely  a  matter  of  opinion, 
and  one  upon  which  even  experts  agree  to  differ. 

Of  the  domestic  contributions  to  the  artificial  fertilizer 
issue,  those  which  have  attracted  the  greatest  measure  of 
attention  are  sulphate  of  ammonia  and  basic  slag.  So  far 
as  the  first  named,  of  the  nitrogenous  group,  is  concerned, 
a  remarkable  reversion  of  opinion  is  to  be  recorded.  Prior 
to  the  war  the  British  farmer,  despite  the  fact  that  sulphate 
of  ammonia   was  obtainable   in   relatively  large   quantities 


FERTILIZERS   FROM  WASTES  251 

from  home  sources,  was  not  deeply  impressed  with  its  plant- 
feeding  value.  At  all  events  the  domestic  consumption 
was  relatively  low,  60,000  tons  being  the  maximum  amount 
used  in  any  pre-war  year.  But  what  the  British  yeoman 
disdained,  his  foreign  contemporary  seized  with  avidity. 
During  1913  our  exports  of  this  waste,  or  by-product  from 
our  gas-works  and  coking-ovens,  totalled  323,054  tons  worth 
£4,390,547 — $21,952,735 — out  of  a  total  export  of  704,071 
tons  of  fertilizers  valued  at  £5,745,484 — $28,727,420.  France 
and  Spain,  as  well  as  our  sugar-growing  Dominions,  were 
our  largest  customers,  the  farmers  of  which  were  prepared 
to  pay  more  for  this  soil  stimulator  than  were  their  con- 
temporaries at  home.  But,  as  a  result  of  experience  gained 
under  the  stress  imposed  by  war,  sulphate  of  ammonia 
found  greater  favour  in  the  eyes  of  our  husbandmen.  During 
1916  the  home  consumption  increased  by  15,000  tons,  a 
further  15,000  tons'  improvement  was  recorded  during 
the  first  three  months  of  1917,  while  for  the  1917  season 
the  figure  rose  to  150,000  tons. 

Under  normal  conditions,  in  accordance  with  the  law 
of  supply  and  demand,  prices  tend  to  rise  coincidentally 
with  the  enhanced  manifestation  of  request,  but  the  country 
took  steps  to  protect  the  consumer,  and  at  the  same  time 
to  remunerate  the  producers  adequately.  Whereas  the 
pre-war  price  for  this  fertilizing  agent  ranged  from  £12  10s. 
to  £14 — $62.50  to  $70— per  ton,  the  war  price  was  officially 
fixed  at  £16 — $80 — per  ton.  Inasmuch,  however,  as  the 
controlled  quotation  included  transport  and  delivery  charges, 
the  actual  increase  in  the  cost  was  not  appreciable. 

But  it  was  the  1917-18  season  which  revealed  the  circum- 
stance that  the  virtues  of  sulphate  of  ammonia  at  last  had 
really  gripped  the  British  farmer.  From  the  estimates 
which  were  carefully  prepared  the  requirements  were  set 
down  at  220,000  tons.  As  a  matter  of  fact  they  notched 
230,000  tons.  Thus,  in  two  short  years,  the  consumption 
of  sulphate  of  ammonia  by  the  hungry  soil  of  Britain  was 
quadrupled,  a  really  startling  achievement.  The  total 
output  of  this  commodity,  both  in  the  solid  and  liquid  forms, 
reached  a  round  400,000  tons,  and  to-day  stands  at  about 
460,000  tons.  Approximately,  one-half  of  this  aggregate 
is  forthcoming  from  our  gas-works  and  the  other  half  from 
our  coking-ovens  and  blast-furnaces.     During  the  war  the 


252  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

balance  remaining  after  the  needs  of  agriculture  had  been 
met,  namely  170,000  tons,  was  absorbed  in  the  manufacture 
of  munitions.  But  under  restored  peace  conditions  this 
latter  volume  will  be  rendered  available  for  home  consump- 
tion or  export. 

Seeing  that  our  pre-war  export  figure  was  323,054  tons 
a  year,  it  would  seem  as  if  we  are  destined  to  lose  some  of 
our  revenue  from  this  trade.  Obviously  only  about  170,000, 
or  at  the  utmost,  230,000  tons  will  be  available  for  our 
foreign  customers.  It  would  seem  as  if  we  are  certain  to 
fall  a  round  100,000  tons  short  of  their  actual  needs,  which 
will  certainly  be  equal  to  the  ante-bellum  figure.  As  a 
matter  of  fact  the  demand  will  probably  be  much  heavier, 
considering  that  the  land  of  these  customers  has  been  denied 
this  food  for  nearly  five  years  ;  at  least  supplies  have  only 
been  forthcoming  in  small  and  totally  inadequate  quantities. 
Moreover,  the  home  demand  is  rising  still,  which  must  tend 
to  attenuate  the  quantities  available  for  export. 

But  there  is  no  need  for  us  to  grow  apprehensive.  In 
another  chapter  I  deal  with  the  benzol  question,  and  illustrate 
how  we  might  increase  our  supplies  of  a  home-produced 
fuel  to  displace  imported  petrol.  In  meeting  our  domestic 
benzol  requirements  we  can  increase  our  output  of  sulphate 
of  ammonia  at  the  same  time.  The  ammonia  is  the  substance 
which  so  worried  gas  engineers  during  the  early  days  of 
gas-lighting.  Then  it  was  an  unmitigated  curse  :  to-day 
it  is  a  blessing.  The  actual  yield  of  sulphate  of  ammonia 
from  a  ton  of  first-class  gas-distilling  coal  may  be  set  down 
at  18  lb.  However,  seeing  that  this  varies  according  to  the 
quality  of  the  coal,  I  will  set  this  figure  at  15  lb.,  which  is 
distinctly  conservative.  On  this  basis,  if  the  whole  of  the 
coal  burned  to  sheer  waste  in  the  private  grates  of  the  country, 
and  which  may  be  set  down  at  100,000,000  tons  under  normal 
conditions,  were  first  carbonized,  it  would  be  possible  to 
add  at  least  700,000  tons  to  our  present  output  of  sulphate 
of  ammonia,  which  would  thus  be  brought  up  to  approxi- 
mately 1,160,000  tons  a  year.  This  would  be  quite  enough  to 
satisfy  the  needs  of  all  our  customers.  But,  at  the  present 
moment,  owing  to  our  supineness,  the  ammonia  and  the 
benzol  are  being  allowed  to  fly  up  the  chimney.  Consequently 
every  person  who  adheres  to  the  consumption  of  coal  instead 
of  coke,  in  the  open  grate,  just  because  a  blaze  is  appreciated, 


FERTILIZERS   FROM  WASTES  253 

is  doing  his  or  her  bit  towards  the  loss,  assuming  the  value  of 
the  fertilizing  agent  at  the  modest  figure  of  £10  per  ton,  of 
£7,000,000 — $35,000,000 — per  annum.  Truly  we  are  paying 
dearly  for  the  gratification  of  a  whim. 

Second  in  popularity  among  the  artificial  fertilizers  comes 
basic  slag.  This  is  another  waste  product,  being  the  refuse 
from  our  steel-works.  It  has  been  allowed  to  pile  up  in 
the  vicinity  of  our  blast-furnaces  to  the  detriment  and 
disfigurement  of  our  countryside.  But  an  observant  and 
persevering  individual  probed  these  unsightly  heaps  to 
discover  that  they  contained  a  valuable  food  for  plants, 
and  in  sufficient  quantity  to  render  it  remunerative  to 
pulverize  the  rock-like  mass  into  a  fine  powder.  Forthwith, 
where  phosphatic  content  was  sufficiently  favourable,  the 
dumps  were  taken  in  hand  to  be  ground  up  into  a  flour  to 
be  distributed  over  the  soil. 

But  the  story  related  of  sulphate  of  ammonia  was  destined 
to  be  repeated  in  connection  with  basic  slag.  It  found 
greater  favour  in  the  eyes  of  the  foreign  farmer  than  it  did 
with  the  native  yeoman,  although  in  this  instance  the 
circumstance  that  a  mistake  was  being  committed  was 
discovered  possibly  more  promptly.  In  1913  our  exports 
of  phosphatic  refuse  from  our  blast-furnaces  were  165,100 
tons,  for  which  we  received  £633,034 — $3,165,170.  The  con- 
sumption upon  our  home  lands  was  about  the  same,  so  that 
the  total  output  was  a  round  330,000  tons  a  year.  Here 
again,  once  the  possibilities  of  the  fertilizer  were  driven 
home,  an  increased  demand  set  in.  From  an  attitude 
of  indifference  British  farmers  turned  to  one  of  clamour. 
Fortunately,  the  first  rush  was  met  by  placing  an  embargo 
upon  the  export  of  this  article,  and,  in  this  way,  double 
the  quantity  was  at  once  secured  for  native  needs. 

The  demand  soon  absorbed  this  extra  quantity,  and  then 
it  became  necessary  to  increase  the  output  of  the  article. 
But  in  this  instance  the  problem  was  not  so  readily  solved. 
In  the  first  place  the  farmer  was  not  disposed  to  accept 
this  fertilizer  when  its  phosphatic  content  fell  below  25  per 
cent.  But  the  proportion  of  phosphate  varies  widely 
according  to  the  district  whence  the  ore  is  forthcoming, 
as  well  as  the  actual  smelting  process  followed.  It  may 
range  up  to  as  high  as  44  per  cent,  or  more  ;  on  the  other 
hand  it  may  fall  to  as  low  as  12  per  cent,  or  less. 


254  MILLIONS   FROM   WASTE 

Owing  to  the  comparatively  limited  demand  which 
prevailed  for  this  article  before  the  war,  only  comparatively 
few  firms  essayed  the  necessary  grinding  of  the  rock-like 
waste  from  the  blast-furnaces.  Again  it  was  by  no  means 
an  easy  matter  to  maintain  the  slag  to  the  desired  phosphate 
quality.  Another  disturbing  factor  was  that  the  smelting 
of  steel,  in  common  with  other  industrial  process,  is  in  a 
constant  state  of  transition  and  improvement.  This  evolu- 
tion was  found  to  be  affecting  the  slag  very  adversely,  because 
the  tendency  was  towards  lowering  of  the  phosphoric  acid 
content. 

However,  it  was  discovered  that,  while  the  available 
dumps  showing  a  phosphatic  content  of  25  per  cent,  or  more 
were  severely  limited,  there  were  an  appreciable  number  of 
slag  heaps  carrying  a  lower  percentage,  ranging  down  to 
17  per  cent,  of  the  necessary  constituent.  These  were  taken 
in  hand  to  be  passed  through  the  grinding  mills.  Even 
this  contribution  proved  insufficient.  The  demand  was 
met  only  by  working  heaps  of  inferior  phosphate  quality 
and  adjusting  the  price  according  to  the  percentage  of  the 
phosphoric  acid  present,  the  figure  naturally  rising  as  the 
proportion  improved. 

The  increase  in  the  consumption  of  basic  slag  was  remark- 
able. The  1916  figure  was  double  that  of  1913,  the  whole 
of  the  165,000  tons  formerly  exported  being  absorbed. 
Increased  producing  facilities  and  the  exploitation  of  a 
lower  grade  waste,  as  already  mentioned,  served  to  increase 
the  consumption  for  1917  a  further  150,000  tons  to  500,000 
tons,  which  represented  the  maximum  capacity  of  the  works 
specializing  in  this  product.  But  although  the  latter  could 
not  be  extended  to  meet  the  still  rising  demand,  owing  to 
the  difficulties  encountered  in  connection  with  the  provision 
of  machinery,  every  effort  was  made  to  keep  supply  astride 
of  demand.  Many  cement  works  throughout  the  country 
had  been  compelled  to  cease  operations  owing  to  the  stoppage 
of  constructional  activity  and  were  lying  dormant.  As 
these  possessed  machinery  excellently  adapted  to  the  pre- 
paration and  grinding  of  the  slag  they  were  pressed  into 
service,  especially  for  dealing  with  the  lower-grade  waste 
from  the  blast-furnaces.  In  this  way  provision  was  made 
for  lifting  the  output  to  600,000  tons  or  more  a  year. 

So  far  as  the  superphosphates  are  concerned  the  deficiency 


FERTILIZERS   FROM  WASTES  255 

experienced  in  this  connection  has  not  been  so  easy  of 
solution.  Our  resources  in  the  essential  material,  so  far 
as  is  known,  are  somewhat  sparse,  while  a  further  problem 
arose  in  connection  with  the  sulphuric  acid,  which  was  in 
keen  request  for  other  purposes.  The  issue  was  met  by- 
continuing  the  importation  of  the  crude  rock  from  the 
northern  coast  of  Africa,  and  in  this  manner  we  contrived 
to  satisfy  our  needs.  But,  during  this  period,  the  oppor- 
tunity was  taken  to  ascertain  whether  or  no  there  did  happen 
to  be  any  suitable  rock  or  other  waste  which  we  were  neglect- 
ing, inasmuch  as  the  moment  war  ceased  immense  quantities 
of  sulphuric  acid,  then  being  absorbed  for  the  production 
of  munitions  and  other  military  requirements,  would  be 
released.  Investigation  was  directed  once  again  to  the 
coprolite  beds  in  the  Eastern  Counties  which  were  formerly 
worked  to  yield  artificial  manures  of  this  character,  but 
which  had  been  abandoned.  They  were  again  taken  up, 
and  a  domestic  superphosphate  production  industry  re- 
suscitated upon  a  limited  scale.  But  whether  under  normal 
trading  conditions  it  will  prove  remunerative  to  continue 
this  phase  of  native  activity  time  alone  can  prove. 

The  only  remaining  fertilizer  which  was  a  source  of 
perturbation  to  the  British  agricultural  industry  was  potash, 
which  is  absolutely  essential  to  certain  lands  and  specific 
crops.  Germany  was  in  the  position  to  dominate  this  industry 
throughout  the  world,  and  she  did  not  hesitate  to  wield  the 
power  she  possessed  to  her  own  advantage.  In  pre-war 
days  we  imported  about  240,000  tons  of  this  chemical,  but 
the  greater  part  was  absorbed  by  other  industries,  such 
as  glass-making,  to  which  it  is  vital.  Only  about  22,000 
tons  found  their  way  to  the  land.  Nevertheless,  the  demand 
in  this,  as  in  other  directions,  was  upwards  and  prices  rose 
by  leaps  and  bounds,  even  touching  about  £60 — $300 — per 
ton  at  one  time. 

Yet  we  have  virtually  solved  our  potash  difficulty,  and 
certainly  will  be  able  to  meet  all  farming  requirements  in 
connection  therewith  if  we  only  sustain  our  initiative. 
We  have  an  abundance  of  waste  materials  whence  we  might 
obtain  all  that  we  need,  but  for  the  most  part  we  have 
spurned  them  with  disdain.  It  has  been  so  much  easier  to 
procure  our  requirements  from  the  country  across  the  North 
Sea,   although,  in  expending  money  in  this  direction,   we 


256  MILLIONS  FROM  WASTE 

materially  contributed  towards  the  construction  of  the 
much- vaunted  High  Seas  Fleet.  But  when  necessity 
compelled  us  to  cast  around  to  work  out  our  own  salvation 
we  encountered  many  surprises.  Germany  will  doubtless 
be  equalfy  surprised  in  future  when  she  discovers  how  little 
dependence  we  need  place  upon  her  vast  resources.  During 
the  war  potash  was  in  urgent  request  for  munitions,  but 
the  demand  in  this  connection  will  no  longer  prevail,  or, 
at  least,  only  to  a  limited  extent,  thereby  allowing  commer- 
cial and  industrial  fields  to  acquire  what  they  need,  and 
at  a  fair  price.  We  shall  be  foolish  if  we  allow  ourselves 
to  abandon  the  exploitation  of  our  potash-yielding  wastes 
merely  by  slavishly  clinging  to  the  pre-war  price  for  this 
commodit}/,  which  was  about  £10 — $50 — per  ton.  To  do 
so  will  be  to  sacrifice  our  national  security  and  wealth  upon 
the  altar  of  cheapness. 

The  wastes  capable  of  being  persuaded  to  yield  potash 
are  far  more  numerous  than  may  possibly  be  conceived. 
And  this  chemical  is  derivable  from  some  of  the  least-expected 
founts.  A  Yorkshire  gentleman,  Mr.  E.  E.  Lawson,  threw 
a  bundle  of  banana  stalks  upon  his  polished  office  chair 
and  allowed  them  to  remain  there  for  some  time.  When 
he  removed  the  stalks  he  noticed  that  the  juice  exuding 
from  the  stalks  had  played  sad  havoc  with  the  finish  to  the 
furniture.  This  action  pointed  to  the  presence  of  potash 
in  the  juice,  and  apparently  in  material  quantity  to  remove 
the  polish  so  effectively.  So  he  suggested  to  a  chemical 
friend,  Mr.  R.  H.  Ellis,  that  it  might  be  profitable  to  analyse 
the  contents  of  the  stalk  to  ascertain  just  how  much  potash 
it  carried.  This  was  done,  and  the  result  was  somewhat 
startling,  indicating  45-9  per  cent,  of  potash  and  practically 
no  soda.  The  subject  was  then  investigated  by  Dr.  A.  J. 
Hanley,  of  the  Agricultural  Department  of  the  Leeds  Univer- 
sity, and  his  analysis  confirmed  the  former  finding.  The 
dried  matter  of  the  original  banana  stalk  was  found  to  be 
as  rich  in  potash  as  kainit,  the  popular  fertilizer  of  this  class. 
These  investigations  sufficed  to  establish  the  possibility 
of  extracting  188  lb.  of  dried  matter  from  a  ton  of  banana 
stalk  containing  13* 7  per  cent,  of  potash,  or  54  lb.  of  ash 
containing  47" 5  per  cent.,  or  25  lb.  of  pure  potash. 

The  yield  from  the  individual  ton  may  seem  to  be  too 
small  to  be  worth  considering.     But  reflect  upon  the  normal 


FERTILIZERS   FROM  WASTES  257 

consumption  of  bananas  in  this  country  !  The  annual 
importation  ranges  from  7,000,000  to  8,000,000  bunches,  which 
represents  an  equal  number  of  stalks — mere  refuse.  Accord- 
ing to  Mr.  Ellis,  under  normal  conditions  the  stalks  average 
a  round  4,000  in  number  weekly  in  Leeds  alone.  When 
stripped,  the  average  weight  of  the  stalk  is  4  lb.,  so  that 
there  are  16,000  lb.  of  stalk  wasted  every  week  in  the 
Yorkshire  city.  Properly  treated,  about  1,340  lb.  of  dried 
matter,  rich  in  potash,  could  be  secured  therefrom  to  feed 
the  land. 

Applying  the  reclamation  process  to  the  whole  of  the 
country,  it  should  be  possible  to  secure  from  28,000,000  to 
32,000,000  lb.  of  banana  stalk,  giving  from  2,350,000  to 
2,700,000  lb.  of  dried  matter  containing  13*7  per  cent,  of  potash 
— from  321,000  to  370,000  lb.  of  potash — during  the  year. 
If  the  stalks  were  carbonized  they  would  yield  from  675,000 
to  771,428  lb.  of  ash  containing  from  320,000  to  366,000 
lb.  of  pure  potash.  This  may  represent  but  a  small  fraction 
of  the  total  agricultural  consumption  of  22,000  tons  per 
annum,  but  it  would  be  a  contribution  from  a  waste  product 
which  now  has  to  suffer  destruction  with  the  total  loss  of 
all  beneficial  values.  The  primary  difficulty,  of  course, 
would  be  in  connection  with  the  recovery  of  the  stalks, 
but  a  reorganization  of  our  selling  methods,  such  as  the 
compulsory  return  of  the  denuded  stalks  to  the  fruit  markets 
for  ultimate  bulk  collection,  would  go  a  long  way  towards 
the  solution  of  this  problem.  The  question  arises  as  to 
whether  we  should  not  find  it  advisable  to  dispose  of  all 
vegetable  and  fruit  waste  along  individual  lines,  inasmuch 
as  other  refuse  of  this  character  contains  potash  in  varying 
proportions.  By  the  establishment  of  a  small,  inexpensive 
and  suitable  furnace  in  the  markets  for  the  treatment  of 
all  waste  it  would  be  possible  to  recover  valuable  fertilizing 
ash  in  sufficient  quantities  to  allow  bagging  and  sale  upon 
the  spot.  Such  treatment  would  be  no  more  expensive  than 
that  in  operation  to-day,  involving  transport  to,  and  com- 
bustion in,  the  destructor. 

Tobacco  is  another  product  rich  in  potash,  particularly 
the  ash.  Here  recovery  would  prove  an  exceptionally 
difficult  task,  but  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  conservation 
of  ash  and  the  discarded  ends  of  cigars  and  cigarettes  from 
clubs,  hotels,   and    other  centres   possessing   smoking-room 

17 


258  MILLIONS   FROM   WASTE 

amenities  might  be  encouraged.  The  total  during  the  year 
would  be  impressive.  Certainly  collection  from  such  quarters 
would  not  be  attended  with  difficulty,  while  the  price  payable 
for  the  residue  might  be  made  sufficiently  attractive  as  to 
induce  the  attendants  to  garner  this  residue. 

So  far  as  the  exploitation  of  waste  for  potash  content 
in  this  country  is  concerned  only  one  established  practice, 
which  is  extremely  precarious,  has  ever  met  with  recognition 
upon  a  limited  scale.  This  is  the  extraction  of  the  precious 
substance  from  kelp,  or  vraic,  to  mention  two  of  the  names 
under  which  the  familiar  seaweed  is  known.  The  treatment 
of  this  waste  is  conducted  along  crude  lines,  but  it  is  doubtful 
whether  our  available  knowledge  could  suggest  a  more 
skilled  method.  British  seaweed  does  not  resemble  that 
recovered  off  the  coasts  of  Japan  and  the  Pacific  seaboard 
of  the  United  States,  where  the  recovery  of  potash  from 
this  residue  from  the  sea  has  become  an  established  industry. 

Yet  Britain  need  not  pay  a  further  penny  tribute  to 
Germany.  We  are  able  to  free  ourselves  entirely  from  the 
German  yoke,  and  can  confidently  look  forward  to  such  a 
happy  state  of  affairs  so  long  as  the  steel  age  reigns.  The 
raw  material  dumped  into  the  blast-furnaces  carries  a  certain 
proportion  of  potash.  But  it  has  always  been  permitted 
to  escape.  Being  associated  with  the  fine  dust  it  was  borne 
through  the  flues,  a  certain  proportion  being  deposited 
therein,  but  at  least  90  per  cent,  was  irretrievably  lost. 
Threatened  famine  compelled  us  to  devote  attention  to 
the  possibility  of  arresting  this  fugitive  potash,  and  our 
efforts  have  met  with  success.  The  furnace  flue  dust  is 
trapped  to  be  passed  through  a  special  plant  for  further 
treatment.  Previous  to  the  war  the  economical  and  fiscal 
conditions  would  not  have  permitted  such  a  practice  with 
profit.  The  requisite  plant  is  necessarily  somewhat  costly 
to  install  and  to  operate.  Had  we  decided  upon  such  a 
course  of  action  the  Germans  would  promptly  have  forced 
the  process  into  bankruptcy  by  resort  to  price-cutting 
tactics.  The  Potash  Syndicate  was  exceedingly  powerful, 
and  it  never  hesitated  to  wield  its  power,  as  the  United 
States  of  America  have  every  occasion  to  remember  when, 
a  few  years  ago,  it  came  into  conflict  with  the  German 
Government  in  regard  to  inter-trading,  and  was  brought 
full  tilt  against  the  potash  ace  of  trumps.     Had  we  ventured 


FERTILIZERS   FROM  WASTES  259 

to  dispute  the  German  monopoly  by  any  attempt  to  exploit 
our  flue-dust  we  should  have  upset  a  pretty  kettle  of  fish 
and  should  have  been  bludgeoned  into  surrender.  It  is 
to  be  hoped  that  the  authorities  will  hesitate  to  play  so 
completely  into  the  enemy's  hands  again,  although  this 
is  fortunately  very  unlikely  because  the  Teuton  monopoly 
has  been  broken  effectively  by  the  restoration  of  Alsace- 
Lorraine  to  France  which  carries,  among  other  numerous 
advantages  in  raw  materials,  the  immense  potash  deposits 
which  the  Germans  worked  so  profitably  to  their  own  ends. 
Still,  even  this  achievement  should  not  dissuade  us  from 
continuing  to  exploit  the  waste  dust  recovered  from  our 
blast-furnaces.  Immense  quantities  of  the  essential  material 
are  forthcoming,  the  potash  content  of  which  varies  from 
3  to  13  per  cent.  As  output  increases  it  should  be  capable 
of  recovery  at  a  decreasing  figure  and  at  one  which  should 
enable  the  indispensable  product  to  be  placed  upon  the 
market  at  a  competitive  figure. 

The  foregoing  does  not  exhaust  the  list  of  potash-yielding 
wastes  possible  of  exploitation.  It  is  recoverable  from  wool 
in  the  washing  process  ;  feldspar  also  contains  potash  ; 
farmyard  manure  will  yield  it  in  attractive  proportions — 
from  9  to  15  lb.  per  ton  ;  while  liquid  manure  also  carries 
it  to  the  extent  of  40  to  45  lb.  per  1,000  gallons.  Thus  it 
will  be  seen  that  we  need  never  suffer  from  an  actual  famine 
in  potash  if  we  but  resolve  to  exploit  our  wastes  to  the  utmost. 

I  have  referred  in  a  previous  chapter  to  the  value  of 
leather  waste  as  a  fertilizer.  Five  years  ago  we  did  not 
pursue  this  problem  along  determined  lines,  mainly  because 
we  did  not  really  understand  its  preparation,  while  our 
farmers  did  not  regard  the  product  then  marketed  with 
favour.  But  to-day  there  is  a  welcome  change  both  in  pro- 
ductive methods  and  the  agricultural  attitude.  Some  large 
plants  for  the  treatment  of  the  leather  waste  have  been 
laid  down  and  are  being  brought  into  operation.  Two 
distinctive  treatments  are  being  followed.  In  the  one 
instance  the  curried  leather — sheer  residue  from  the  boot 
factories  possessing  no  other  possible  use — is  being  sub- 
mitted to  treatment  for  the  extraction  of  the  greases  and 
fats  used  in  the  dressing  processes.  In  the  second  system 
these  fats,  owing  to  their  low  grade  and  as  yet  absence  of 
possible   industrial   use,   are   being  ignored,   although   they 


260  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

disappear  for  the  most  part  from  the  product  in  the  course 
of  treatment.  Otherwise  the  two  methods  are  broadly 
identical.  The  leather  is  carbonized  and  then  reduced  to 
a  dark  greyish  powder.  In  this  form  it  meets  with  the  full 
approval  of  the  farmer,  and,  as  its  nitrogen  content  is  said 
to  range  up  to  9  per  cent.,  it  is  meeting  with  ready  disposal, 
the  demand  at  the  present  moment  being  far  in  excess  of 
supply.  At  one  works  an  output  of  60  tons  a  week  is 
being  recorded,  which  incidentally  indicates  the  quantity 
of  leather  waste  incurred  in  our  boot-producing  factories. 

I  have  also  drawn  attention  to  the  extent  to  which  fish 
scrap  is  now  being  treated,  and  here  again  highly  satisfactory 
developments  are  to  be  narrated,  the  trade,  especially  in 
regard  to  the  production  of  fertilizer,  being  in  a  flourishing 
condition.  Fish  guano  appeals  to  the  farmer,  owing  to  its 
high  content  of  ammonia  and  phosphate  which  aggregate 
approximately  20  per  cent.  At  one  fish  waste  reducing  factory 
the  output  is  20  tons  every  24  hours,  the  plant  being  run 
on  continuous  lines,  but  arrangements  are  being  completed 
to  double  the  capacity  to  secure  an  output  of  40  tons  during 
the  24  hours.  Hitherto  the  farmer  has  not  been  completely 
enamoured  of  fish  manure  because  in  certain  instances, 
notably  in  the  treatment  of  the  oily  fish,  such  as  the  herring, 
the  grease  content,  which  was  as  anathema  to  him,  was 
somewhat  heavy.  But  the  perfection  of  the  solvent  ex- 
traction process  which  I  have  described,  and  whereby  the 
oil  contained  in  the  finished  fertilizing  meal  can  be  reduced 
to  as  low  as  1  per  cent.,  has  completely  removed  this 
disability. 

As  is  well  known,  bone-meal  is  a  popular  fertilizer.  In 
this  instance,  although  the  fatty  content  of  the  crude  bones 
may  be  high,  the  processes  of  degreasing  have  been  advanced 
to  such  a  stage  of  perfection  as  to  bring  about  virtually 
the  total  elimination  of  this  objectionable  constituent. 
The  fertilizer,  if  properly  prepared,  will  not  carry  more  than 
1  per  cent,  of  grease.  The  bones  undergo  a  very  thorough 
treatment,  because  this  waste  is  able  to  feed  several 
industries. 

Sewage  is  also  coming  more  widely  into  favour  as  a  ferti- 
lizer, as  I  explain  in  another  chapter,  while  residues  incurred 
in  other  ramifications  of  industry  are  now  being  carefully 
collected  instead  of  being  permitted  to  dissipate  into  the 


FERTILIZERS   FROM  WASTES  261 

air  or  to  pass  to  the  furnaces  for  combustion.  The  dust 
arising  from  the  reduction  of  woollen  rags  into  shoddy  forms 
an  excellent  hop  manure.  Dried  blood  is  another  first-class 
fertilizer — in  fact  it  would  be  difficult  to  enumerate  all  the 
wastes  which  can  now  be  profitably  exploited  for  their 
soil-nourishing  values.  Speaking  broadly,  it  may  be  stated 
that  any  refuse  which,  upon  investigation,  is  able  to  yield 
3  or  more  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  demands  further  examination 
for  the  discovery  of  the  cheapest  ways  and  means  to  reduce 
it  to  a  fertilizer  for  sale  at  an  attractive  figure.  If  price 
be  right  no  apprehensions  need  be  entertained  concerning 
disposal ;  the  farmer  will  absorb  the  plant  food,  to  nourish 
his  crops,  with  eagerness. 


CHAPTER   XVIII 

SAVING   THE   SEWAGE   SLUDGE 

In  matters  pertaining  to  sanitation  and  the  movement  of 
sewage  Great  Britain  undoubtedly  leads  the  world.  There 
our  conquest  ends.  From  that  point  onwards  we  can  only 
point  to  lamentable  inefficiency.  For  instance,  the  lay- 
out of  the  main  drainage  system  of  London,  undoubtedly 
the  finest  illustration  of  such  engineering  in  the  world,  has 
involved  a  capital  expenditure  of  £12,514,606 — $62,573,030. 
By  the  provision  of  enormous  conduits  and  feeders  the 
excrementitious  matter  from  residences,  offices,  workshops, 
and  factories  of  the  metropolis  is  borne  for  miles  to  central 
stations.  In  this  manner  those  natural  and  trade  wastes, 
construed  as  being  inimical  to  health,  are  removed  swiftty 
and  hygienically,  and  we  compliment  ourselves  upon  our 
prowess,  which  certainly  is  justifiable  so  far  as  it  goes. 

But  when  we  come  to  the  treatment  of  this  material 
we  fail  miserably.  At  the  central  station  the  solid  matter, 
in  reality  a  mud  or  sludge,  is  separated  from  the  free  liquid. 
The  disposal  of  the  latter  offers  little  or  no  difficulty.  It 
can  be  rendered  innocuous,  and  is  therefore  permitted  to 
resume  its  part  in  the  scheme  of  Nature.  But  the  sludge  : 
that  is  a  different  proposition.  A  few  figures  concerning 
the  situation  in  regard  to  London  may  prove  illuminating. 
Certainly  they  will  serve  to  demonstrate  the  magnitude 
of  the  volume  of  this  waste.  During  the  year  over 
100,000,000,000  million  gallons  of  sewage  are  received  from 
approximately  5,350,000  people  occup3Ting  95,000  acres. 
Each  million  gallons  of  sewage  yields  about  25  tons  of  sludge. 
The  total  quantity  of  solid  matter  is  approximately  200,000 
tons.  It  costs  about  30s. —  $7.50 — to  treat  and  dispose 
of  each  million  gallons  <>l  raw  sewage. 

S262 


SAVING  THE   SEWAGE  SLUDGE  263 

The  total  yield  of  sludge  exceeds  2,600,000  tons  a  year. 
It  is  an  incubus  having  no  ostensible  commercial  value,  so  is 
transferred  to  vessels  to  be  carried  out  to  sea  where  it  is 
thrown    overboard.     Seeing   that    it    costs    about    £17    13s. 

—  $88 — to  run  each  vessel  out  and  back  again,  and  that  some 
111,000  journeys  are  made  during  the  year,  dumping  the 
sludge   costs   the   ratepayers   of   London   nearly   £2,000,000 

—  $10,000,000 — a  year.  The  crime  incidental  to  London 
is  repeated  throughout  the  country,  and  in  this  way,  as 
Sir  William  Crookes  pointed  out,  the  nation  is  deliberately 
discarding  16,000,000  tons  of  valuable  nitrogenous  material 
which, were  it  subject  to  proper  treatment,  might  be  reclaimed 
to  participate  in  the  nourishment  of  our  broad  acres.  Estim- 
ating the  value  of  this  potential  fertilizing  agent  at  the  modest 
figure  of  one  |d. — 1  cent— per  pound  we  are,  of  malice 
aforethought,  throwing  away  a  round  £35,000,000 — 
$175,000,000 — per  annum.  But  this  is  not  the  most  disturb- 
ing feature.  For  the  most  part  the  sludge,  and  in  the  case  of 
seaside  towns  the  crude  sewage,  is  discharged  upon  potential 
valuable  fishing  grounds,  to  the  destruction  or  infection  of 
the  fish,  especially  shell-fish.  Furthermore,  one  must  not 
imagine  because  the  objectionable  and  dangerous  refuse 
is  abandoned  well  out  to  sea  its  serious  dangers  are 
removed.  Tides  and  currents  play  strange  tricks,  the 
result  being  that  much  of  this  filth  is  thrown  back  upon  the 
coasts,  perhaps  at  a  distant  point,  to  wreak  possible  havoc. 

Civilization  breeds  a  strange  fastidiousness.  The  idea 
of  reclaiming  sewage  for  exploitation  is  repulsive  to  the 
average  individual,  although  he  does  not  turn  a  hair  at  the  use 
of  the  comparative  material  derived  from  the  animal  kingdom 
for  the  nourishment  of  the  soil,  and  the  feeding  of  produce 
cultivated  essentially  for  the  table.  The  argument  often 
raised  against  any  exploitation  of  excrement  is  that  it  has 
become  associated  with  many  other  deleterious  substances, 
which  have  been  thrown  or  allowed  to  run  down  the  drain, 
as  the  readiest  avenue  for  their  disposal.  But  the  very 
circumstance  that  such  waste  has  become  compounded 
with  other  residues,  many  of  which  are  worth  reclamation, 
should  be  sufficient  to  induce  us  to  regard  sewage  not  as 
an  incubus  or  danger,  but  as  a  mine  worthy  of  development 
to  its  fullest  extent. 

Fortunately,  the  objection  to  the  exploitation  of  sewage 


264  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

for  its  commercial  contents  is  in  process  of  being  over-ruled 
by  the  growth  of  a  more  enlightened  attitude  towards  the 
whole  issue,  although  it  is  to  be  feared,  in  accordance  with 
the  precept  that  what  the  eye  does  not  see  the  heart  does 
not  grieve,  the  more  progressive  policy  is  being  sanctioned 
unconsciously.  It  is  safe  to  assert  that,  but  for  the  war, 
which  retarded  the  hands  of  progress  very  pronouncedly, 
the  new  movement  in  regard  to  the  handling  of  this  material 
would  have  made  a  material  advance.  Even  to-day  the 
outlook  is  not  hopeless,  inasmuch  as  the  accentuated  need 
to  make  every  use  possible  of  waste  products  may  result  in 
the  sewage  exploitation  problem  being  attacked  with 
enhanced  energy. 

What  can  be  done  with  sewage  is  revealed  by  the  action 
of  one  or  two  towns  which  have  taken  their  courage  into  their 
own  hands,  notably  Bradford  and  Oldham.  In  these  two 
instances  the  modern  handling  of  sewage  was  assumed  before 
the  war,  so  that  the  experience  gathered  during  the  past 
six  years  may  prove  sufficiently  convincing  to  permit  the 
whole  subject  to  be  attacked  more  in  consonance  with 
contemporary  thought,  which  views  all  wastes  in  one  light 
■ — potential  raw  materials  for  other  industries. 

Changing  conditions  and  the  need  to  cope  with  this 
residue  along  more  comprehensive  lines,  in  accordance  with 
the  growth  of  the  population  and  the  quantity  of  material 
to  be  handled,  were  responsible  for  the  change  from  the 
old  method  to  the  new  in  both  instances.  In  the  case  of 
Bradford  the  Corporation  found  it  necessary  to  establish 
new  works  about  six  miles  distant  from  the  centre  of  the 
city,  and  was  faced  with  the  necessity  to  expend  £1,250,000 
—  $6,250,000 — in  connection  with  the  undertaking.  In 
view  of  such  a  heavy  capital  committal  perhaps  it  was  only 
logical  to  consider  the  possibility  of  rendering  the  sewage 
more  remunerative  in  the  future  than  it  had  been  in  the 
past.  Any  revenue  to  be  derived  from  exploitation  in  such 
a  field  must  react  to  the  advantage  of  the  community  affected, 
more  especially  when  such  action  does  not  jeopardize  the 
health  of  the  citizens  to  the  slightest  degree. 

Of  course,  the  situation  in  so  far  as  it  concerns  Bradford 
was  somewhat  unusual.  The  city  is  the  hub  of  the  wool- 
scouring  trade  of  the  country,  and  in  treating  the  sewage 
much  of  the  wealth  allowed  to  slip  down  the  drains    from 


SAVING  THE   SEWAGE   SLUDGE  265 

cleaning  the  wool  is  open  to  reclamation.  The  one  great 
mistake,  if  such  it  may  be  called,  of  which  Bradford  has 
been  guilty,  in  view  of  the  volume  of  grease  contained  in 
the  effluents,  is  ever  to  have  permitted  these  wastes  to  pass 
into  the  drains  and  sewers.  They  should  have  been  collected 
and  treated  as  a  separate  entity.  But,  as  this  would  have 
entailed  combination  of  the  interests  concerned,  an  ad- 
mittedly difficult  undertaking  under  voluntary  conditions, 
the  city  authorities  decided  to  repair  the  sins  of  omission 
upon  the  part  of  its  industrial  citizens  and  to  assume  the 
recovery  of  the  valuable  materials  which  were  being  allowed 
to  escape. 

This  manifestation  of  commendable  enterprise  and 
initiative  owes  its  origin  mainly  to  the  activity  of  Mr.  Joseph 
Garfield,  A.M.I.C.E.,  the  sewage  engineer.  Many  years 
ago  the  idea  of  turning  the  sewage  of  the  city  to  industrial 
account  occurred  to  him,  and  he  embarked  upon  a  prolonged 
series  of  exhaustive  experiments.  These  were  sufficiently 
conclusive  and  sufficiently  promising  of  profit  as  to  persuade 
the  adoption  of  the  methods  he  advocated  at  the  critical 
moment,  which  arrived  when  the  provision  of  a  new  sewage 
station  became  imperative. 

The  plant  for  dealing  with  the  sludge  was  moved  from 
the  old  situation  to  new  buildings  specially  erected  for  the 
purpose  at  Esholt,  and  the  raw  material  is  fed  to  the  latter 
station  through  a  special  main.  The  sludge  contains  only 
80  per  cent,  of  water,  the  free  water  having  been  previously 
removed  by  settling.  It  is  fed  into  the  main  by  compressed 
air.  Upon  its  arrival  at  the  station  the  sludge  is  lifted, 
also  by  compressed  air,  into  large  vats,  where  it  is  heated 
by  the  waste  steam  from  the  engines  of  the  power  plant. 
In  this  heated  condition  the  sludge  passes  into  close-sealed 
vessels  from  which,  still  at  a  temperature  approaching  boiling 
point,  it  is  forced  by  compressed  air  through  the  filter  presses. 
Each  of  these  presses,  of  which  there  are  about  100  disposed 
in  rows,  contains  47  chambers,  each  3  feet  square. 

As  already  stated,  the  sewage  of  Bradford  is  heavily 
charged  with  grease  resulting  from  wool-washing  and  other 
industries,  and  it  is  this  heavy  proportion  of  grease  which 
renders  the  process  so  attractive.  Moreover,  by  keeping 
the  sludge  in  a  heated  condition  during  the  pressing  process 
the  expression  of  the  fatty  content  is  more  readily  effected. 


266  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

From  40  to  48  hours  are  required  to  fill  a  press  with  residuum, 
that  is  to  say  this  period  of  time  must  elapse  before  the 
whole  of  the  available  space  within  the  press  is  occupied  by 
the  dry  cake  from  which  the  grease  has  been  expressed,  by 
which  time  from  four  to  five  tons  of  sludge  have  been  passed 
through.  Each  cake  is  3  feet  square  by  i|  inches  thick 
and  weighs  about  30  cwt.  The  grease  and  water  which 
is  driven  out  of  the  sludge  is  carried  away  from  the  presses 
into  tanks.  Here  the  water  and  grease  are  separated,  the 
water  to  be  re-discharged  into  the  sewage,  while  the  grease 
is  led  to  the  purification  tanks.  Subsequently  the  fat  is 
either  drawn  off  into  barrels  or  is  pumped  into  tank  wagons 
for  dispatch  to  the  works  where  it  is  worked  up  into  articles 
of  commerce,  including  soap.  The  oil  is  found  to  yield  three 
valuable  products — olein,  stearine,  and  pitch.  The  two 
last  named  enter  extensively  into  the  dressing  of  leather, 
as  well  as  the  manufacture  of  candles  and  as  an  insulator 
for  electric  cables,  respectively. 

The  installation  yields  from  12  to  15  tons  of  grease 
throughout  the  twenty-four  hours,  working,  of  course,  being 
continuous.  This  product  in  the  days  before  the  war 
commanded  from  £S  to  £10 — $40  to  $50 — per  ton,  but  the 
price  is  now  higher.  The  sludge-cakes  find  favour  as  a 
fertilizer,  mainly  from  the  fact  that  they  are  free  from  lime 
and  carry  only  from  28  per  cent,  to  30  per  cent,  of  moisture. 
This  residue  fetched  from  3s. — 75  cents — upwards  per  ton 
at  the  works  in  pre-war  days,  when  a  healthy  export 
was  recorded,  the  product  being  shipped  in  appreciable 
quantities  to  France  and  even  to  the  Southern  States  of 
America.  The  output  of  cake  averages  from  50  to  60  tons 
per  day.  In  addition  to  proving  useful  as  a  fertilizer  it 
has  been  found  to  furnish,  when  blended  with  coal-dust,  a 
serviceable  fuel. 

The  revenue  derived  from  this  example  of  sewage  industry 
is  certainly  such  as  to  attract  widespread  attention.  In 
the  early  days  of  the  process,  when  only  two  presses  were 
maintained  to  establish  its  possibilities,  the  grease  sales 
reached  £222  10s.  6d.  —  $1,112.62 — per  annum.  In  1911 
the  annual  revenue  had  risen  to  a  figure  ranging  between 
£20,000  and  £30,000 — $100,000  and  $150,000 — from  the 
enlarged  battery  of  presses.  When  the  new  works  were 
opened  it  was  anticipated   that   the  Corporation  would  be 


SAVING  THE  SEWAGE  SLUDGE  267 

deriving  £50,000 — $250,000 — a  year  from  the  sale  of  the 
products  derived  from  its  sewage  upon  the  attainment  of 
the  designed  maximum  output.  Up  to  the  year  1911  the 
total  sales  amounted  to  no  less  than  £100,000 — $500,000. 
From  the  recital  of  these  figures  it  must  be  conceded  that 
Bradford  has  a  very  profitable  commercial  enterprise  in  its 
sewage  works. 

Yet  even  the  foregoing  figures  are  undoubtedly  capable 
of  improvement  owing  to  the  advances  made  in  the  whole 
issue  of  the  recovery  of  fats  from  wastes.  The  pressing 
system,  even  when  conducted  along  the  most  modern  lines 
with  up-to-date  plant,  leaves  much  to  be  desired  in  point 
of  yield.  Under  the  most  favourable  pressing  conditions  at 
least  10  per  cent,  of  the  original  volume  of  grease  is  left  in 
the  residue.  The  presence  of  this  grease  reacts  against  the 
value  of  the  residue  as  a  fertilizer,  grease  being  the  bugbear 
of  the  farmer.  With  the  latest  process  for  grease  extraction 
this  content  can  be  reduced  down  to  1  per  cent.  Not 
only  does  this  represent  an  increased  yield  of  9  per  cent, 
of  fat  with  its  attendant  enhanced  financial  return,  but  it 
gives  a  fertilizer  which,  being  exceedingly  low  in  fat,  appeals 
more  strongly  to  the  farmer,  and  accordingly  is  able  to 
command  a  higher  price.  This  fact  appears  to  have  become 
appreciated  by  the^Bradford  authorities  according  to  recent 
developments. 

Because  such  a  striking  success  has  been  recorded  at 
Bradford,  it  is  not  to  say  that  the  self -same  method  would 
be  equally  profitable  at  other  places,  especially  those  handling 
what  might  be  termed  purely  domestic  sewage.  The  con- 
ditions existing  at  the  Yorkshire  city  are  peculiar,  owing 
to  the  wool- washing  trade.  The  process  which  is  more 
likely  to  make  the  widest  appeal,  being  the  one  adapted  to 
meet  the  average  conditions,  is  that  which  has  been  installed 
in  the  borough  of  Oldham.  This  is  the  invention  of  Mr.  J. 
Grossmann,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  F.I.C.,  the  well-known  chemical 
engineer,  who  has  made  the  exploitation  of  sewage  his  life- 
long study.  The  plant  in  question  was  laid  down  in  1912, 
being  set  in  operation  in  October  of  that  year,  since  which 
date  it  has  been  working  without  a  break,  giving  the  most 
satisfactory  results.  At  the  time  the  installation  was  carried 
out  the  population  of  the  borough  was  148,840,  and  both 
the  water-carriage  and  sanitary-pan  system  were  in  vogue, 


268  MILLIONS   FROM   WASTE 

although  the  latter  was  giving  way  to  the  former  method 
at  the  rate  of  about  one  thousand  per  year.  As  the  conversion 
system  was  carried  into  effect  the  quantity  of  sludge  which 
the  sewage  works  were  called  upon  to  handle  increased, 
the  quantity  pressed  in  191 1  being  nearly  8,000  tons  a  year 
as  compared  with  4,000  tons  in  1899.  This  did  not  include 
the  several  hundred  tons  which  were  dealt  with  in  lagoons 
without  pressing.  As  the  quantities  of  pressed  sludge 
increased  so  did  the  difficulty  of  disposing  thereof. 

The  outlook  was  somewhat  disconcerting.  The  agri- 
cultural land  in  the  vicinity  could  only  absorb  a  portion 
of  the  available  volume.  The  necessity  to  incur  the  expense 
of  carrying  the  residue  a  considerable  distance  to  dispose 
of  it,  which  solution  would  have  proved  somewhat 
costly,  appeared  to  be  inevitable.  Experiments  innumer- 
able were  carried  out,  but  to  no  purpose.  Agriculture, 
which  is  regarded  as  the  obvious  outlet  for  such  material, 
was  adverse  to  the  proposal  to  absorb  the  accumulation 
for  the  land,  because  it  carried  approximately  15  per  cent, 
of  grease.  The  only  escape  from  the  dilemma  appeared 
to  be  the  installation  of  further  presses  with  the  attendant 
expense  for  auxiliaries  to  yield  a  dry  material,  and  then  to 
pay  for  the  cartage  of  this  residue  to  some  convenient  tipping 
ground  or  carriage  of  the  settled  sludge  to  sea  to  be  dumped. 
As  a  round  30,000  tons  of  sludge  would  have  been  involved, 
the  sea-dumping  expedient  would  have  been  extremely 
costty.  Further  consideration  of  the  question  established 
the  possibility  of  converting  the  material  into  a  marketable 
manure,  but  this  would  have  required  the  utilization  of 
a  trade  process  and  also  would  have  incurred  expense. 

At  this  juncture  the  attention  of  the  Corporation  was 
attracted  to  Dr.  Grossmann's  process.  It  was  investigated 
and  submitted  to  searching  experiments  spread  over  a  period 
of  three  years  at  the  sewage  works.  From  the  results  obtained 
and  the  experience  gathered,  it  gave  promise  of  being  com 
pletely  successful  when  conducted  upon  a  large  scale.  So 
it  was  adopted. 

The  Grossmann  process  may  be  said  to  represent  the 
most  logical  exploitation  of  sewage  yet  attempted  in  accord- 
ance with  the  severe  hygienic  conditions  imposed  to-day. 
Curiously  enough,  when  the  disposal  of  sewage  by  water- 
carriage  was   first   introduced,   the  critics  of   the  principle 


SAVING  THE   SEWAGE   SLUDGE  269 

did  not  hesitate  to  point  out  that  it  represented  the  most 
wasteful  solution  of  the  problem  which  had  ever  been  accepted 
for  practice.  But  against  these  contentions  the  advocates 
of  the  idea  urged  that  the  hygienic  advantages  to  be  gained 
were  so  overwhelming  that  the  question  should  not  be 
considered  from   the   commercial  view-point  at   all. 

Other  days,  other  manners.  In  this  instance,  however, 
not  many  years  passed  before  the  issue  attracted  such 
widespread  attention  as  to  demand  searching  investigation, 
the  difficulty  and  cost  attending  the  disposal  of  the  sludga 
being  responsible  for  a  pronounced  outcry  against  the  method. 
The  sludge  problem  was  thoroughly  probed  by  a  Royal 
Commission,  by  which  the  opinion  was  expressed  that  the 
value  of  this  waste,  calculated  upon  the  volume  of  dry 
substance  contained  therein,  was  no  more  than  ios. — $2.50 — 
per  ton  at  the  very  outside.  But  as  the  sludge  is  produced 
in  a  form  showing  a  high  percentage  of  water  it  was  hopeless 
to  expect  farmers  to  absorb  it,  owing  to  the  transport  charges 
involved  for  such  a  comparatively  low  manurial  return, 
unless  their  land  happened  to  be  situate  close  to  the  centres 
of  production.  To  overcome  the  water  difficulty  attempts 
were  made  to  dry  the  sludge,  in  the  effort  to  reduce  its  bulk, 
but  it  was  discovered  that  drying  did  not  constitute  a  complete 
sterilization  process,  with  the  result  that  the  material  was 
liable  to  carry  infection.  But  the  greatest  objection  to 
drying  is  that  this  very  process,  while  it  achieves  one  end — 
the  transport  difficulty — provokes  another  disability.  The 
sewage  is  worth  less  after  drying  than  in  the  saturated  form. 

The  presence  of  fat  in  material  quantities  has  always 
been  responsible  for  agricultural  hostility  towards  this 
waste  as  a  fertilizer.  The  fat  is  due  to  soap  used  in  the 
household,  and  which  is  thrown  down  the  drains,  as  well 
as  the  grease  resulting  from  other  domestic  operations. 
The  great  objection  to  grease  is  that  it  has  the  tendency 
to  clog  the  soil. 

In  turn  efforts  were  made  to  dispose  of  the  nuisance  as 
a  fuel,  the  heavy  proportion  of  oil  present  in  the  dried  cake 
being  the  attractive  feature  prompting  this  application. 
This  recommendation  found  scanty  favour.  Another 
brilliant  mind  conceived  the  idea  of  consuming  the  refuse  in 
gas-producers,  thus  obtaining  a  low-grade  gas  for  power  pur- 
poses.   This  attempt  failed  to  meet  approbation.     A  third 


270  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

expedient  was  its  conversion  into  an  illuminating  gas,  but 
this  likewise  failed  to  overcome  the  obstacle.  In  so  far  as 
lighting  is  concerned,  in  many  places  the  practice  is  followed 
of  allowing  the  gas  thrown  off  by  the  decomposing  faecal 
matter  during  its  passage  through  the  sewers,  to  be  led  to 
the  burners  of  adjacent  street  lamps  to  mix  with  the  ordinary 
town  gas  and  thus  be  consumed.  But  this  is  merely  a 
safety  precaution  ;  it  is  not  followed  from  economical 
motives.  Now  that  electricity  is  widely  displacing  gas  for 
street  illumination,  even  this  quasi-utilitarian  system  is 
meeting  with  defeat. 

Under  the  Grossmann  system,  as  practised  at  Oldham, 
the  sludge  is  subjected  to  a  complete  scientific  treatment. 
The  process  is  continuous  and  automatic  throughout.  More- 
over, the  plant  is  designed  and  built  upon  the  unit  principle, 
which  allows  the  standardization  of  parts  and  ability  to 
meet  any  desired  demand  by  merely  acquiring  a  sufficient 
number  of  units  to  comply  with  the  sewage  resulting  from 
a  given  population.  Each  unit  is  capable  of  dealing  with 
sludge  arising  from  the  purely  domestic  sewage  of  20,000 
inhabitants.  Thus  a  town  of  100,000  inhabitants  would 
require  5  units,  a  city  of  one  million  souls  50  units,  and  so 
on  in  arithmetical  progression.  Furthermore,  any  number 
of  units  can  be  worked  together,  so  that  in  those  centres 
where  the  population  fluctuates  according  to  season  or 
other  conditions,  a  certain  number  of  units  can  be  shut 
down  during  the  off  period. 

The  sludge  passes  to  a  special  tank  and  is  permitted 
to  settle  down  to  approximately  20  per  cent,  solid  matter. 
It  is  then  scooped  up  by  bucket  elevators  to  be  lifted  and 
discharged  into  another  tank  at  the  top  of  the  building. 
This  acts  as  the  storage  tank  or  hopper,  whence  it  is  moved 
automatically  by  means  of  screw  conveyors  and  distributed 
among  six  hoppers.  Each  of  these  hoppers  feeds  a  drying 
machine.  The  driers,  set  out  in  pairs  with  their  brickwork 
casings  and  flues,  occupy  the  upper  room.  The  machines 
themselves  comprise  iron  cylinders  set  in  the  brickwork 
and  coal-fired  furnaces.  They  are  fitted  with  a  specially 
designed  gearing  and  pulley  mechanism  which  gradually 
moves  the  crude  wet  sludge  from  the  inlet  towards  the 
opposite  end  or  outlet.  Being  exposed  to  heat  during  this 
passage   the  sludge  is  naturally   deprived   of   the   water  it 


SAVING   THE   SEWAGE   SLUDGE  271 

contains,  this  being  evaporated  to  be  led  to  the  furnace 
where  any  offensive  gases  and  other  matter  associated 
therewith  in  suspension  are  consumed  before  passing  to  the 
chimney  to  escape  into  the  outer  air.  By  the  time  the 
sludge  reaches  the  outlet  it  has  been  completely  dried. 

The  arrangement  of  the  feed  from  the  hopper  to  the 
drier  is  such  that  only  a  measured  quantity  of  sludge  can 
be  passed  through  in  a  given  time,  which  ensures  the  condition 
of  the  sludge  at  the  outlet  being  uniform.  The  provision 
of  a  similar  measuring  system  at  the  outlet  of  the  drier 
ensures  only  a  measured  quantity  of  sludge  being  dis- 
charged at  that  point.  It  will  be  observed  that  these  pro- 
tective devices  guard  against  forcing  the  apparatus  to  the 
detriment  of  the  delivered  sludge  which  emerges  from  the 
drier  in  the  form   of  a  dry  powder. 

If  desired  this  residue  may  be  burned.  Mixed  with 
coke  it  forms  an  excellent  fuel,  and  can  be  employed  towards 
raising  the  requisite  steam  to  conduct  the  treatment  of 
further  sewage.  But,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  this  powder 
contains  about  15  per  cent,  of  fat,  its  disposal  as  a  fuel  would 
constitute  about  the  most  wasteful  conceivable.  Accordingly, 
the  next  stage  is  the  extraction  of  the  fatty  content.  As 
it  comes  from  the  drying  apparatus  the  sludge  is  passed 
automatically  into  a  distilling  retort  which  is  bricked-in 
and  heated.  Above  this  retort  is  a  tank  containing  acid, 
a  certain  quantity  of  which  is  passed  into  the  retort  to  be 
automatically  mixed  with  the  powdered  sludge.  Simul- 
taneously superheated  steam  is  driven  through  the  mass 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  permeate  the  whole.  The  interior 
of  the  retort  is  fitted  with  gearing  and  pulleys  similar  to 
those  provided  to  the  drier  and  for  a  similar  purpose — 
the  steady  gradual  movement  of  the  sludge  from  one  end 
to  the  other.  By  the  time  it  has  reached  the  outlet  from 
the  machine  the  sludge,  completely  deprived  of  fat,  is  auto- 
matically discharged  as  a  valuable  manure  and  is  ready  for 
distribution  upon  the  land. 

The  superheated  steam  charged  with  the  grease  is  passed 
into  a  condenser,  where  water  from  a  feed  tank  condenses 
the  water  and  throws  down  the  grease.  The  mixture  of 
condensed  steam  and  grease  is  passed  into  a  recovery  tank. 
The  grease  settling  out  on  the  top  is  removed  for  boiling  up 
in  a  separate  vessel,  upon  the  completion  of  which  treatment 


272  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

it  is  ready  for  packing  and  sale.  The  fatty  matter  consists 
largely  of  stearine  and  palmitine,  which  to-day  meet  with 
a  prompt  sale  at  lucrative  prices. 

But  it  is  the  solid  residue  in  the  dry  powdered  form 
which  attracts  the  greatest  measure  of  attention.  Disposal 
of  the  grease  from  sewage  has  never  occasioned  so  much 
difficulty  as  the  utilization  of  the  ultimate  residue  from 
reasons  already  explained.  In  this  particular  instance 
the  great  problem  has  been  solved.  The  manure  is  in  the 
form  of  a  fine  powder,  containing  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid, 
and  potash,  as  well  as  about  40  per  cent,  of  organic  material. 
It  is  very  fine,  brownish  in  colour,  odourless,  and  what  is 
more  to  the  point,  absolutely  innocuous,  having  been  com- 
pletely sterilized.  Consequently  there  is  no  risk  of  infection 
being  disseminated  by  its  use. 

The  circumstance  that  the  process  is  absolutely  automatic 
from  the  time  the  sludge  is  charged  into  the  hopper  to  the 
finished  article  issuing  from  the  distilling  retort,  is  a  distinct 
recommendation.  Not  only  does  it  conduce  to  extremely 
economical  operation,  but  it  reduces  the  necessity  to  bring 
human  labour  into  one  of  the  most  offensive  of  industries, 
inasmuch  as  the  atmosphere  of  such  an  establishment  is 
scarcely  fragrant,  as  may  well  be  imagined,  although  fami- 
liarity breeds  strange  contempts.  The  only  labour  essential 
is  that  required  for  heating  up  the  drying  machines  and 
retorts. 

There  is  one  overwhelming  advantage  incidental  to  this 
process  which  cannot  fail  to  arouse  attention.  Pressing 
in  any  form  is  eliminated.  This  not  only  signifies  a  very 
pronounced  saving  in  capital  expenditure  in  the  first  instance, 
but  contributes  to  lower  working  charges,  while  there  is 
an  enchanced  recovery  of  grease  and  an  absolutely  grease-free 
residue. 

Before  the  Corporation  of  Oldham  decided  to  install 
this  system  upon  a  practical  scale  searching  experiments 
were  conducted  with  the  resultant  manure,  to  determine 
its  plant-feeding  value.  It  was  the  promise  of  being  able 
to  find  such  a  ready  market  for  the  ultimate  residue  which 
constituted  one  of  the  attractions  of  the  process.  Experi- 
ments were  conducted  at  several  farms  with  various  produce, 
and  these  proved  that  the  manure  gives  remarkably  good 
results  and  is  more  effective  than  any  other  plant-feeder 


SAVING  THE   SEWAGE   SLUDGE  273 

containing  the  same  proportion  of  nitrogen,  potash,  and 
phosphates.  Finally  it  contains  an  ingredient  which  is 
absolutely  missing  from  every  chemical  fertilizer.  The 
latter  is  certainly  a  plant  food,  but  it  is  imperative  that  the 
ground  should  be  treated  with  a  certain  quantity  of  organic 
matter  to  assure  the  physical  and  mechanical  working  of 
the  soil.  Decaying  organic  matter  fulfils  this  end  admirably, 
as  one  would  suppose,  being  a  natural  process,  but  during 
the  past  five  years  the  bestowal  of  sufficient  quantities  of 
necessary  humus  has  been  impossible,  owing  to  the  shortage 
in  supplies  of  farmyard  manure. 

For  this  reason  every  farmer  regards  a  grease-free  manure 
carrying  substance  of  a  humus-like  nature  for  the  improvement 
of  his  soil  with  a  particularly  friendly  eye,  and  he  is  prepared 
to  pay  a  good  price  for  such  an  article.  The  sewage  sludge 
fertilizer  prepared  under  the  Grossmann  process  offers  the 
agriculturist  just  what  he  desires  in  this  connection,  inasmuch 
as  it  carries  about  30  per  cent,  of  the  humus-like  substance. 
Then,  again,  the  active  manurial  ingredients  are  distributed 
over  the  mass  in  such  a  fine  state  of  division  as  cannot  possibly 
be  attained  by  resort  to  mechanical  grinding.  Finally, 
it  is  excellently  balanced,  and  the  farmer  keenly  appreciates 
a  well-balanced  fertilizer.  Here  he  gets  it  because  the 
essential  operation  has  been  conducted  by  Nature,  whose 
process  cannot  be  rivalled.  Applied  to  gardens  this  manure 
is  found  to  prevent  the  growth  of  yellow  leaves,  while  the 
green  of  the  foliage  is  particularly  rich  and  dark.  In  some 
quarters  there  has  been  a  certain  degree  of  hesitation  to 
utilize  the  fertilizer  merely  because  it  is  derived  from  sewage, 
owing  to  the  prevalence  of  many  fallacious  notions.  Its 
origin  is  regarded  with  revulsion,  and  its  utilization  with  a 
certain  degree  of  dread,  but  there  need  be  no  apprehensions 
whatever  concerning  its  use.  The  fact  that  in  the  course  of 
the  treatment  the  material  is  raised  to  a  temperature  approach- 
ing 600  degrees  Fahrenheit — where  the  superheated  steam 
comes  into  contact  with  the  waste  to  expel  the  fat — effec- 
tively disposes  of  all  germ  life  inimical  to  the  health  of 
both  animals  and  human  beings,  while  it  is  also  clean  to 
handle  and  odourless,  it  being  impossible,  from  mere  cursory 
examination  of  the  fertilizer,  for  the  lay  mind  to  determine 
its  origin.  Finally,  it  may  be  stored  for  any  length  of  time 
without  creating  a  nuisance,  or  deteriorating. 

18 


274  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

The  whole  of  the  output  from  the  Oldham  sewage  works, 
which,  owing  to  the  process  of  concentration,  is  really  limited, 
notwithstanding  the  volume  of  crude  sewage  handled,  is 
readily  absorbed  by  farmers.  Disposal  was  entrusted  to  a 
firm  to  act  as  the  selling  agents  for  the  Corporation.  Owing 
to  the  number  of  repeat  orders  received,  year  after  year,  this 
house  declares  that  it  could  easily  place  20,000  tons  of  the 
fertilizer,  were  it  forthcoming,  without  increasing  its  present 
staff  of  travellers. 

While  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  militated  against  the 
expansion  of  the  process,  although  many  other  Corporations 
have  expressed  their  readiness  to  introduce  the  process 
into  their  respective  sewage  works,  the  past  five  years  have 
not  been  allowed  to  represent  dead  time.  Improvement 
upon  improvement  has  been  incorporated  with  the  object 
of  securing  still  higher  efficiency.  In  this  direction  the 
inventor  has  made  many  distinct  progressive  strides.  The 
one  objection  levied  against  the  process  was  the  heavy 
expense  incurred  in  regard  to  fuel  charges  for  drying  the 
sludge,  and  these  costs  naturally  have  become  accentuated 
by  the  200  to  300  per  cent,  rise  in  the  price  of  coal.  But 
in  this  direction  it  is  now  possible  to  record  noticeable 
reductions. 

As  a  result  of  experiment  the  inventor  has  evolved  a 
new  method  for  settling  the  sludge.  He  found  that,  by  adding 
a  very  slight  amount  of  sulphuric  acid — about  1  part  to 
1,000 — to  the  sludge  coming  from  the  settling  tanks,  the 
usual  settling  process  is  completely  reversed.  Instead  of  the 
sludge  settling  to  the  bottom,  the  addition  of  the  acid  causes 
it  to  rise  to  the  surface,  and  in  a  much  more  concentrated 
form.  The  water  settles  to  the  bottom  in  a  clearer  condition 
and  can  be  drawn  off.  By  further  settling  and  draining 
this  top  layer — virtually  a  thick  scum — a  sludge  can  be 
obtained  carrying  about  30  per  cent,  solid  matter,  and 
therefore  as  a  less  volume  of  water  needs  to  be  evaporated 
a  considerable  saving  in  the  consumption  of  fuel  and  cost 
of  drying  is  achieved. 

Moreover,  it  is  suggested  that  in  laying  down  new  installa- 
tions, it  will  be  possible  and  profitable  to  install  a  destructor 
upon  the  sewage  works.  In  such  cases  it  would  be  feasible 
to  draw  upon  the  waste  heat  from  the  destructor  to  conduct 
the  drying  and  other  operations  demanding  the  application 


SAVING  THE   SEWAGE   SLUDGE  275 

of  heat.  In  combining  the  destructor  with  the  sewage 
plant  the  question  of  transport  of  the  refuse  from  the  collect- 
ing ground  to  the  destructor  would  demand  very  careful 
consideration  when  horse  haulage  is  employed,  but  with 
mechanical  traction  the  question  of  an  extra  mile  or  two 
in  distance  hauled  is  not  of  such  moment,  especially  as  it 
would  be  off-set  by  the  saving  of  fuel  which  would  attend 
the  diversion  of  the  waste  heat  to  this  useful  application. 
In  fact,  in  cases  where  new  lay-outs  are  being  contemplated 
it  is  a  matter  for  serious  reflection  as  to  whether  it  would 
not  be  found  profitable  to  centralize  destructor,  electric 
generating  station  and  Grossmann  sewage  treatment  plant 
in  one  centralized  spot,  interlocking  them  together,  and 
taking  full  advantage  of  such  inter-connection.  The 
destructor  would  furnish  the  necessary  steam  from  th« 
combustion  of  cinders  and  other  refuse  which  it  does  not 
pay  at  present  to  exploit,  or  preferably  other  low-grade 
fuel  to  drive  the  electric  plant,  the  waste  steam  being 
carried  to  the  sewage  works  for  the  drying  and  other 
machines  together  with  the  desired  proportion  of  live 
steam,  while  the  electric  station  would  furnish  the  requisite 
power  for  operating  the  automatic  mechanical  appliances. 

The  grease  recovered  from  the  sewage,  which  is  of  a 
domestic  character,  is  essentially  that  from  soap,  cooking 
and  washing  operations.  It  is  totally  free  from  all 
objectionable  smell.  It  can  be  purified  very  easily  and 
is  of  distinct  value.  In  its  crude  condition  the  fat  contains 
about  70  per  cent,  of  stearic  acid. 

During  the  past  few  years  the  dry  powdered  residue 
has  not  only  been  utilized  in  a  direct  form,  but  has  also 
been  exploited  in  the  production  of  compounded  fertilizers. 
Mixed  with  phosphates,  sulphate  of  ammonia,  and  other 
nitrogenous  products  it  has  yielded  a  manure  which  has 
given  most  excellent  results  in  farming.  Considerable 
improvements  with  regard  to  greater  efficiency  and  cheaper 
production  have  been  made  in  the  manufacture  of  com- 
pounded fertilizers  from  this  residue,  and  there  is  every 
indication  that  still  greater  developments  are  possible  in 
this  direction. 

Were  all  the  sewage  of  this  country  treated  along  these 
lines  British  agriculture  would  derive  distinct  benefit,  while 
industry  would  also  be  presented  with  a  new  source  of  supply 


276  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

of  essential  raw  material.  It  would  go  a  long  way  to  enable 
us  to  use  our  greases  over  and  over  again,  because  the  drain 
is  the  most  popular  avenue  for  the  escape  of  this  material. 
Sewage  represents  the  greatest  waste  incidental  to  this 
country.  Dr.  Grossmann  estimates  its  value  at  approximately 
£22,000,000 — $110,000,000  —  per  annum,  of  which  but 
only  an  infinitesimal  fraction  is  at  present  recovered.  The 
value  of  the  fat  alone  thrown  down  our  drains,  and  reclaimed 
in  a  marketable  form  would  realize  from  £500,000  to 
£1,000,000 — $2,500,000  to  $5,000,000 — a  year.  The  value 
of  the  manurial  product,  of  which  at  least  1,000,000  tons 
are  recoverable  during  the  twelve  months,  may  be  set  down 
at  least  at  £2,000,000 — $10,000,000 — the  contents  thereof 
being  equivalent  to  50,000  tons  of  phosphates,  50,000  tons 
of  potash  salts,  with  nitrogen  equal  to  that  forthcoming 
from  100,000  tons  of  sulphate  of  ammonia.  This  manure 
would  suffice  for  the  fertilization  of  at  least  3,000,000  acres 
of  land  from  which  we  might  safely  anticipate  gathering, 
at  a  modest  estimate,  additional  crops  worth  £5,000,000 
■ — $25,000,000. 

There  is  one  other  fact  which  deserves  mention.  Sewage 
is  eminently  adapted  to  the  feeding  of  sandy  soils  and  other 
land  which,  at  the  moment,  is  considered  too  poor  for  agri- 
cultural purposes.  If  this  manure  were  reserved  for  such 
land  many  thousand  additional  acres  might  be  brought 
under  cultivation  in  these  islands.  At  the  present  moment 
these  acres  are  being  allowed  to  run  to  seed,  constituting 
what  we  erroneously  term  waste  land,  but  only  waste  because 
we  are  not  sufficiently  enterprising  and  energetic  to  reclaim  it. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  the  towns  and  cities  called 
upon  to  handle  the  sewage,  the  Grossmann  process  holds 
out  many  inducements.  It  complies  with  the  demands 
of  sanitation  because  it  precipitates  no  nuisance.  It  is 
the  most  hj-gienic  process  yet  evolved  for  the  disposal  of 
sewage  sludge.  The  revenue  derived  from  the  sale  of  the 
by-products — manure  and  grease — is  such  as  to  render 
the  operation  of  the  plant  not  only  self-supporting  but 
money-making.  As  a  rule  the  sewage  works  of  the  average 
town  represent  a  sink  in  more  senses  than  one,  more  especially 
when  it  becomes  incumbent  to  resort  to  the  tipping,  dumping 
or  other  disposal  of  the  enormous  accumulations  of  the 
sludge.     But  signs  of  awakening  air  apparent.     The  Oldham 


SAVING   THE   SEWAGE   SLUDGE  277 

plant  has  been  investigated  by  Corporations  and  other  author- 
ities, not  only  of  this  country  but  from  other  parts  of  the 
world,  who  have  been  satisfied  as  to  its  commercial  practic- 
ability. With  the  restoration  of  normal  trading  conditions 
it  is  anticipated  that  the  process  will  become  more  exten- 
sively adopted,  especially  as  during  the  past  five  years  cease- 
less effort  has  been  devoted  to  the  perfection  of  details  to 
assure  the  establishment  of  the  process  upon  a  firm  com- 
mercial basis. 


CHAPTER   XIX 

HOUSE-BUILDING  WITH  WASTES 

Of  the  many  problems  of  the  day  demanding  prompt  settle- 
ment, none,  perhaps,  is  so  vital  to  the  welfare  of  the  com- 
munity as  the  provision  of  increased  housing  accommodation. 
The  issue  is  by  no  means  confined  to  Great  Britain  ;  it  is 
incidental  more  or  less  to  every  country.  Such  a  state  of 
affairs  is  not  surprising,  seeing  that  building  operations,  at 
least  in  the  domestic  sense,  have  been  reduced  to  a  condition 
of  comparative  stagnation  for  five  years.  Even  those 
countries  which  were  not  drawn  into  the  actual  fighting 
arena  have  been  unable  to  carry  out  housing  schemes  to 
meet  the  needs  of  their  growing  populations  owing,  primarily, 
to  the  dearth  of  the  necessary  materials  and  the  enhanced 
labour  charges. 

So  far  as  Britain  is  concerned  the  outlook  is  decidedly 
disquieting.  It  is  estimated  that  at  least  1,000,000  houses 
are  required  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  population.  As  a 
first  instalment  it  is  proposed  to  complete  forthwith  300,000 
houses,  but,  here  again,  experience  is  proving  it  to  be  far 
easier  to  adumbrate  such  comprehensive  schemes  on  paper 
than  to  carry  them  into  expeditious  effect.  Questions  of 
cost  have  arisen.  This  constitutes  the  vital  factor,  because 
obviously  it  is  folly  to  build  houses  for  people  who  cannot 
afford  to  live  in  them.  And  the  limit  in  the  upward  tendency 
has  by  no  means  been  attained. 

The  critical  situation  has  been  surveyed  from  every 
ostensible  angle  without  any  practical  solution  being  found. 
But  have  we  not  been  circumscribed  in  our  attacks  upon 
the  problem  ?  Have  we  not  become  so  deeply  rutted  in 
our  ideas  concerning  everything  pertaining  to  housing  as 
to  be  unable  to  regard  the  aspect  from  a  totally  new  point 

278 


HOUSE-BUILDING  WITH  WASTES  279 

of  view  ?  Similar  crises  have  developed  in,  and  are  constantly 
assailing,  other  industries.  Upon  their  occurrence  they 
appear  to  be  equally  impossible  of  successful  adjustment, 
but,  finally,  as  a  result  of  attacking  a  difficulty  from  quite 
a  new  angle  and  in  a  new  way,  it  has  been  not  only  subjugated 
satisfactorily,  but  a  distinct  improvement  upon  the  old  method 
brought  into  operation  at  one  and  the  same  time.  A  new 
line  of  thought  and  development,  possessing  greater  and  more 
economic  possibilities,  has  been  opened  up  to  the  advantage 
of  one  and  all.  As  a  rule  one  need  never  hesitate  to  abandon 
the  existing  for  something  new,  because  the  former  is  generally 
associated  with  some  form  of  waste  which  has  become  so 
heavy  as  to  act  as  a  drag.  Directly  this  retarding  force 
is  eliminated,  or  turned  to  account,  a  new  era  commences. 

The  contemporary  situation  in  the  building  trade  recalls 
the  state  of  affairs  which  arose  in  American  agricultural 
circles  as  a  result  of  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War.  The 
drainage  of  man-power  from  the  land  precipitated  an  ex- 
tremely depressing  outlook.  Farmers  protested  that  the  soil 
must  run  to  seed  from  lack  of  labour  to  wield  the  tools.  But 
thinking  men  held  a  contrary  opinion.  Farming  had  been 
conducted  along  lines  which  had  been  followed  slavishly 
for  centuries.  Manual  labour  had  attained  undisputed 
sway  and  to  decisive  disadvantage.  Why  not  dispense 
with  hand  labour  and  use  machines  ?  The  suggestion  that 
mechanism  could  displace  brawn  upon  the  land  provoked 
a  good  deal  of  hostile  criticism  and  humour.  But  the 
imaginative  were  not  to  be  dismayed  by  conservatism, 
prejudice,  or  ridicule.  They  continued  perseveringly  along 
their  particular  lines   of  reasoning. 

What  was  the  result  ?  McCormick  introduced  the  self- 
binder  which  revolutionized  harvesting  methods,  while 
other  brilliant  minds  conceived  equally  striking  time-  and 
labour-saving  appliances  for  other  agricultural  duties.  They 
not  only  solved  the  immediate  crisis  but  imparted  quite  a 
new  prospect  to  agriculture  the  whole  world  over.  It  is 
safe  to  assert  that,  but  for  the  introduction  of  the  self-binder, 
one-half  of  the  United  States  would  still  have  remained 
as  barren  as  the  wilderness  from  sheer  lack  of  labour  to 
cultivate  it. 

If  such  a  complete  revolution  proved  possible  of  attain- 
ment in  such  an  ancient,  rutted,  and  indispensable  industry 


280  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

as  agriculture,  surely  it  is  not  hopeless  to  anticipate  the 
fulfilment  of  a  similar  complete  transformation  in  the  craft 
of  house-building  ?  So  far  as  farming  is  concerned  there 
is  every  excuse  for  hesitating  to  depart  from  the  proved  and 
trusty.  A  false  step  may  wreak  untold  harm,  but  so  far  as 
house-building  is  concerned  no  such  calamity  need  be  appre- 
hended. A  mistake  can  speedily  be  rectified.  It  is  safe  to 
assert  that  there  is  no  other  line  of  activity,  especially  in 
Great  Britain,  so  closely  identified  with  the  effete  and  wasteful 
as  house-building.  In  so  far  as  constructional  methods 
are  concerned  we  have  scarcely  changed  our  ways  since 
bricks  were  first  brought  into  use. 

We  must  ruthlessly  scrap  the  old,  which  has  obtained 
for  so  long,  in  favour  of  the  new.  Science  is  forcing  the 
pace,  and  she  will  no  more  be  arrested  by  obsolete  theories 
and  arguments  than  the  tides  will  be  held  up  by  a  child's 
spade.  Already  she  is  asserting  her  power.  Contemporary 
methods  are  wickedly  extravagant,  and  it  is  this  absurd 
wastage  which  is  primarily  responsible  for  enhanced  costs. 
The  ways  of  science  are  inscrutable,  but  they  are  sure  none 
the  less  :  the  first  indications  of  chafing  at  delay  always 
assert  themselves  in  the  traditional  becoming  too  expensive 
to  maintain.  The  pocket  is  the  positive  road  to  reform  ; 
assail  its  contents,  and  the  world  commences  to  bestir  itself. 
As  the  farmer,  raised  in  the  old  school,  had  to  give  way  to 
the  engineer,  so  must  our  conceptions  and  ideas  pertaining 
to  providing  houses  for  the  community  undergo  a  complete 
change.  The  architect,  his  numerous  satellites,  and  the 
cumbrous  rules  and  regulations  which  have  been  framed 
to  protect  their  vested  interests  must  be  jettisoned  without 
a  thought  of  regret.  The  day  has  dawned  when  the  engineer 
must  assume  the  responsibility  for  providing  the  people 
with  residential  accommodation,  and  he  will  be  assisted  by 
a  new  force,  including  the  chemist,  which  will  play  a  far 
more  prominent  part  in  this  problem  than  many  may  be 
disposed   to   imagine. 

This  is  ;i  utilitarian  age.  People  desire  houses  to  live  in — 
not  to  look  at,  although  every  one  will  readily  agree  that  a 
certain  regard  must  be  paid  to  external  aesthetic  considera- 
tions. The  average  house-owner  troubles  his  head  very  little 
over  the  outside  appearance  of  his  domicile  or  the  materials 
of  which  it  is  built,  so  long  as  the  interior  oilers  him  all  he 


HOUSE-BUILDING   WITH  WASTES  281 

desires  in  regard  to  comfort  and  health.  Too  long  have 
we  clung  tenaciously  to  specific  theories  which  are  no  more 
adapted  to  this  age  than  is  the  slave-oared  galley  to  mercantile 
traffic.  They  are  destructive  rather  than  constructive. 
For  a  time  such  clock-arresting  dogma  and  precepts  hold 
sway,  but  sooner  or  later  the  pendulum  of  progress  gives 
such  a  vicious  kick  as  to  break  down  the  whole  of  the  obstruc- 
tions disputing  advance,  to  assume  rhythmic  running  in  a 
new  channel  to  the  advantage  of  one  and  all. 

Science  has  the  solution  to  the  housing  problem  ready 
for  immediate  application,  but  she  must  be  allowed  to  pursue 
her  progressive  way  untrammelled.  From  what  one  might 
be  able  to  assume,  brick  and  stone  represent  the  only  building 
materials  at  our  command.  But  are  they  ?  In  other 
fields,  where  restraining  forces  are  not  allowed  to  secure  the 
upper  hand,  huge  forward  strides  are  being  made  and  with 
a  material  we,  as  a  supposed  commercial  nation,  have 
scarcely  noticed. 

I  refer  to  concrete.  We  have  only  to  turn  to  the  engineer- 
ing world  to  see  what  has  been  achieved  with  this  material 
in  the  construction  of  bridges,  tunnels,  piers,  harbours, 
breakwaters,  warehouses,  lighthouses,  and  even  ships.  If 
we  turn  to  the  United  States  and  Germany  we  are  able  to 
see  how  we  have  lagged.  In  both  those  countries  enormous 
strides  have  been  made  and  incidentally,  in  the  prosecution 
of  this  task,  other  magnificent  conquests  in  the  world  of 
science  and  of  the  industrial  employment  of  waste  are 
recorded.  To-day  the  manufacture  of  cement  constitutes 
one  of  the  twelve  most  important  industries  in  the  United 
States,  and  the  greater  part  of  this  material  is  made  from 
what  a  few  years  ago  was  accepted  as  sheer  waste — residue 
from  the  iron-works  which,  having  no  further  ostensible 
use,  was  dumped  in  huge  piles  to  the  disfigurement  of  the 
landscape.  To-day  this  waste  is  being  turned  into  building 
material,  having  usurped  the  product  originally  selected 
for  this  duty. 

The  reason  why  there  should  be  such  a  deep-rooted 
antipathy  to  concrete  for  house-building  purposes  in  these 
islands  is  somewhat  inscrutable.  Probably  it  is  due  to  the 
experiments  which  were  made  many  years  ago,  and  which 
owing  to  our  limited  knowledge  were  construed  by  the 
quidnuncs    into    a    failure.     But    because    Brunei's    Great 


282  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

Eastern  did  not  succeed  we  do  not  laugh  at  the  mammoth 
steamship  of  to-day.  Brunei's  conception  suffered  merely 
from  being  premature.  So  were  the  first  attempts  to  use 
concrete  in  the  house-building  industry.  During  the  past 
few  years  we  have  acquired  further  knowledge  which  should 
enable  us  to  steer  clear  of  the  blunders  of  the  past,  but 
instead  of  grappling  with  the  problem  along  the  lines  which 
science  is  vividly  blazing  we  prefer  to  waste  time  in  the 
idle  discussion  of  quaint  theories  and  fantastic  notions. 

Many  are  the  reasons  why  concrete  should  be  employed. 
In  the  first  place  it  is  difficult  to  excel  for  simplicity.  It 
comprises  essentially  two  materials — cement,  sand  and 
rubble,  the  two  last-named  being  generically  described  as 
the  aggregate.  The  term  is  wide  in  its  meaning,  comprising 
virtually  any  and  every  inorganic  material  capable  of  being 
crushed  to  a  pre-determined  size,  and  the  character  of  which 
may  be  as  varied  as  the  number  of  days  in  the  year  or  more, 
while  recent  investigation  has  indicated  that  even  the 
conventional  sand  may  be  eliminated,  provided  a  sharp 
and  gritty  substitute  in  a  similar  powdered  form  be  forth- 
coming. 

Think  what  this  means  and  the  many  possibilities  it 
opens  up  !  In  the  first  place  it  enables  material  on  site — 
waste — to  be  turned  to  economic  account,  and  the  term 
waste  in  this  instance  is  extremely  elastic.  There  is  no 
need  to  disfigure  the  countryside  with  yawning  craters  in  the 
form  of  pits  for  the  excavation  of  the  special  clay  suited  to 
the  making  of  bricks.  Again  we  must  not  forget  that  by 
the  employment  of  the  conventional  building  materials  a 
demand  is  made  upon  transport,  which  to-day  is  as  acute 
as  the  scarcity  of  houses.  With  concrete  the  only  constituent 
calling  for  transport  from  a  producing  point  is  cement,  and 
this  only  involves  the  movement  of  one-seventh  of  the  load 
which  would  otherwise  be  involved  were  bricks  to  be  used. 
In  other  words,  if  seven  tons  of  bricks  were  required  to 
build  a  house  it  would  only  be  requisite  to  move  one  ton  of 
cement  to  yield  a  similar  house  in  concrete — the  other  six 
tons  of  essential  materials  could  be  acquired  on  the  site. 
The  avoidance  of  superfluous  expenditure  as  well  as  the 
economy  in  time  and  labour  is  obvious. 

Our  towns  and  cities  are  daily  shedding  tons  of  a  specific 
form  of  waste— ashes  and  clinker  from  electric  generating 


HOUSE-BUILDING  WITH  WASTES  283 

stations,  water-works,  gas-works,  and  refuse  destructors. 
The  contribution  naturally  varies  according  to  the  population, 
but  a  small  town  burning  40  tons  of  refuse  in  its  destructor 
may  safely  anticipate  accumulating  clinker  at  the  rate  of 
8  to  10  tons  a  day.  The  disposal  of  this  residue  presents 
a  problem  in  itself.  A  certain  quantity  can  be  absorbed 
in  connection  with  the  sewage  beds,  road-making  and  other 
incidental  tasks,  but,  for  the  most  part,  it  has  to  be  dumped, 
merely  because  it  possesses  no  ostensible  application.  When 
one  reflects  upon  the  activities  of  the  factories  in  a  manu- 
facturing town  and  the  daily  output  of  clinker  and  ash  from 
these  sources  alone,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  civic  clinker 
disposal  problem  is  likely  to  assume  enormous  dimensions, 
and  to  prove  a  costly  issue  in  itself.  Thousands  of  tons 
are  dispatched  by  road,  rail  and  water  from  our  towns  and 
cities  to  be  jettisoned  at  suitable  points  where  unsightliness 
does  not  count.  The  authorities  of  New  York  City  used 
to  ship  hundreds  of  tons  daily  60  miles  out  to  sea,  while  at 
Liverpool  it  had  to  be  barged  for  24  miles  to  be  thrown 
overboard  into  the  Irish  Sea  at  a  cost  of  2s.  6d. — 60  cents — 
a  ton  !  Many  borough  authorities  will  readily  give  away 
the  material  to  those  who  care  to  fetch  it,  so  keen  are  they 
to  be  relieved  of  this  incubus.  Yet,  in  every  instance, 
the  equivalent  of  sovereigns  are  being  shot  upon  the 
land,  dumped  into  the  sea,  or  given  away  as  the  case 
may  be. 

Cannot  a  more  economic  use  for  this  and  kindred  refuse 
be  found  ?  This  is  the  obvious  question  in  this  utilitarian 
age.  Yet  it  is  almost  superfluous  to  launch  the  inquiry. 
It  can  be  turned  into  concrete  :  could,  and  should,  if  we 
were  sufficiently  enterprising  and  astute,  as  well  as  frugal 
in  our  habits,  be  turned  into  houses.  Certain  attempts 
have  been  made  towards  the  conversion  of  this  residue  into 
constructional  material  such  as  kerb-stones  for  lining  our 
pavements,  slabs  to  take  the  place  of  York  flagstones  and 
bricks  for  paving  purposes,  the  building  of  sheds  and  other 
insignificant  structures,  but  none  represents  a  grim  attempt 
to  wrestle  with  the  issue  along  bold  and  comprehensive 
lines. 

Some  years  ago,  the  city  engineer  of  Liverpool,  Mr.  John 
A.  Brodie,  M.Inst.C.E.,  one  of  our  most  enterprising  city 
engineers,  essayed   a   bigger   step   forward.     He   was   faced 


284  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

with  the  disposal  of  50,000  tons  of  clinker  from  the  city 
destructors  during  the  year.  He  made  a  bold  effort  to  turn 
it  to  economic  account  in  the  obvious  directions — paving  and 
kerbing  operations — but  these  channels  absorbed  only  a 
round  20,000  tons,  leaving  some  30,000  tons  to  be  shipped 
to  sea  to  be  dumped  at  a  total  annual  cost  of  nearly  £4,000 — 
$20,000.  The  city  authorities  had  resolved  to  carry  out  a 
tenement  building  scheme,  and  the  city  engineer  decided 
to  provide  them  in  concrete  and  to  use  the  refuse  from  the 
destructors  as  the  aggregate,  exacting  tests  having  convinced 
him  of  its  suitability  for  this  purpose. 

The  building,  covering  an  area  of  3,717  square  feet,  of 
which  total  1,611  square  feet  are  open  space,  is  of  three 
floors  with  four  tenements  on  each  floor,  finished  off  with 
a  flat  roof,  surrounded  by  a  parapet  for  washing,  drying,  or 
playground   purposes. 

The  construction  of  the  building  was  carried  out  upon 
the  section  or  slab  system.  That  is  to  say  the  walls,  floors 
ceilings,  and  other  parts,  with  all  necessary  openings,  were 
moulded  at  the  destructor  works,  and  set  aside  for  a  time 
to  mature.  Some  of  these  slabs  were  of  imposing  dimensions, 
ranging  up  to  16  feet  in  length  by  13  feet  wide,  14  inches 
thick  and  weighing  n  tons.  Upon  arrival  at  the  site  they 
were  slung  into  position  and  dovetailed  into  place,  thus 
forming  a  rigid  structure. 

As  an  indication  of  how  modern  thought  may  be  hampered 
severely  by  prevailing  notions  it  may  be  stated  that,  as  a 
result  of  his  deductions  and  experiments,  the  engineer  decided 
that  a  thickness  of  7  inches  for  the  walls  would  be  adequate. 
But  his  decision  was  over-ruled.  The  existing  regulations 
insisted  that  brick  walls  should  be  14  inches  thick  and  the 
concrete  had  to  comply  with  these  rules.  The  result  of 
this  indefensible  policy,  for  which  misconception  and  lack 
of  knowledge  were  responsible,  was  to  double  the  weight 
of  the  structure  and  to  inflate  the  cost  of  the  buildings  to 
an  unnecessary  degree.  The  engineer  computed  that  if 
construction  were  carried  out  upon  the  lines  he  advocated 
the  building  could  be  completed,  including  the  provision 
of  all  necessary  plant,  for  £1,230 — $6,150.  Enforced  com- 
pliance with  obsolete  rules  inflated  the  cost  to  £4,072 — 
$20,360.  In  other  words  the  ratepayers  of  Liverpool  were 
compelled  to  spend  £2,8  j ~  —$14,210 — more  than  they  need 


HOUSE-BUILDING  WITH  WASTES  285 

have    done — a    flagrant    waste    of    money,    material,    time, 
labour,  and  knowledge. 

One  objection  which  has  been  levelled  against  the  concrete 
house  is  the  concrete  floor.  But  to  surmount  this  objection 
the  Liverpool  engineer  embedded  wooden  scantlings  in  the 
concrete,  covered  the  surface  of  the  latter  with  a  layer  of 
pitch  mixture  applied  hot,  and  then  nailed  down  f-inch 
floor-boards  in  the  usual  manner.  In  this  way  the  so-called 
defects  of  the  concrete  floor  were  completely  overcome. 
The  walls  were  subjected  to  several  experiments  to  determine 
the  most  suitable  internal  finish,  some  being  papered,  others 
plastered,  while  in  further  instances  a  simple  coating  of 
sanitary  wash  or  lime  was  applied.  It  was  found,  however, 
that  for  such  buildings,  distemper  was  the  most  efficient 
finishing  medium. 

This  experiment  conclusively  substantiated  the  claims 
advanced  by  the  engineer.  It  demonstrated  the  fact  that 
concrete  lends  itself  to  rapid  construction,  the  Liverpool 
building,  despite  its  size,  being  erected  and  roofed  within 
three  months,  notwithstanding  frequent  cessations  owing 
to  inclement  weather,  and  was  ready  for  occupation  within 
another  eleven  weeks — say  six  months  in  all.  It  is  safe 
to  assume  that  had  brick  been  employed  it  could  never  have 
been  finished  in  the  time. 

The  advantages  of  concrete  for  such  domiciles  are  obvious. 
The  structure  is  as  near  being  fire-proof  as  it  is  possible  to 
contrive.  It  complies  with  every  requirement  of  hygiene. 
It  is  substantial,  weather-proof,  and  sound-proof,  while  it 
improves  with  age.  Concrete,  unlike  the  common  grade 
of  brick,  does  not  deteriorate  under  the  influences  of  time 
and  weather.  The  walls  offer  no  refuge  for  vermin,  unless 
papered,  and  should  a  room  become  infected  as  a  result  of 
contagious  disease  among  the  inmates,  it  can  be  promptly 
sterilized  by  turning  on  a  hose  of  boiling  disinfectant  and 
being  scoured  from  top  to  bottom.  Rats  and  mice  cannot 
secure  a  refuge,  because  the  extreme  hardness  of  concrete 
taxes  their  gnawing  powers  to  the  superlative  degree. 

The  experience  of  Liverpool  was  adequate  to  drive  home 
the  fact  that  concrete  dwellings  are  not  only  able  to  provide 
the  poorer  classes  with  a  substantial  home,  complying  in 
every  respect  with  modern  requirements,  but  also  indicated  a 
profitable  use  for  an  otherwise  useless  waste  product.     Were 


288  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

comprehensive  schemes  carried  out  upon  these  lines  the 
cost  factor  might  be  reduced  to  the  absolute  minimum  by 
recourse  to  standardization  in  the  preparation  of  the  slabs. 
As  a  result  of  this  initial  experiment — the  first  of  its  character 
in  Great  Britain — the  Liverpool  city  engineer  estimated  that 
he  could  erect  future  buildings  of  this  type,  in  blocks  of  five, 
at  £1,700 — $8,500 — each,  and  that  this  would  show  a  saving 
of  25  per  cent,  over  the  cost  which  would  be  incurred  if 
brick  were  used.  But,  and  this  was  an  important  factor,  to 
achieve  this  end  it  would  be  incumbent  to  allow  the  engineer 
to  pursue  his  way  unfettered  by  obsolete  ideas,  fallacious 
notions,  and  antiquated  rules  and  regulations. 

Some  years  ago  Edison  precipitated  a  mild  wave  of 
excitement  by  the  perfection  of  a  process  for  moulding  houses 
complete  in  a  solid  block,  much  along  the  lines  followed  by 
the  housewife  in  the  preparation  of  jellies  and  other  similar 
table  dainties.  He  suggested  the  erection  of  a  mould  to 
the  design  of  the  desired  house,  including  both  internal  and 
external  artistic  embellishments,  and  then  to  run  the  concrete 
into  the  metal  shell  in  liquid  form  and  to  allow  it  to  set 
and  harden.  Then  the  mould  was  to  be  demolished,  leaving 
a  solid  monolithic-structure  from  foundation  to  roof,  and 
without  a  crack  or  a  joint.  The  mould,  naturally,  was  built  up 
in  sections,  which  could  be  standardized  and  interchanged, 
so  that  once  a  set  of  moulds  had  been  acquired  a  house  of 
any  desired  dimensions  might  be  erected.  Of  course,  this 
demanded  an  imposing  array  of  moulds,  entailing  heavy 
initial  capital  expenditure.  Edison  frankly  admitted  this 
to  be  the  weak  point  in  his  scheme,  because  the  mould  bill 
for  the  construction  of  a  "  poured  "  house,  as  it  was  called, 
costing  £240 — $1,200 — would  be  at  least  £5,000—125,000. 
Consequently  the  suggestion  was  impracticable,  unless  the 
builder  were  given  an  imposing  house-building  scheme  to 
complete,  to  enable  him  to  distribute  his  mould  charges 
in  such  a  manner  over  the  houses  as  to  increase  the  actual 
building  cost  of  each  only  by  a  trifling  amount. 

Edison's  conception  aroused  extreme  interest  in  America 
and  provoked  widespread  ridicule  in  these  islands.  The 
"  poured  "  house  was  regarded  in  the  same  light  as  was  the 
telephone  upon  its  first  appearance  in  London.  As  the 
latter  was  declared  to  be  merely  a  "  scientific  toy,"  so  was 
the  poured  house  described  as  nothing  but  a  wild  dream. 


HOUSE-BUILDING  WITH  WASTES  287 

But,  be  it  noted,  antagonism  and  objection  have  been 
levelled  from  the  fickle  standpoint  of  theory  ;  we  have  no 
practical  experiment  to  guide  us  in  our  assault  upon  Edison's 
idea.  Instead  of  setting  to  work  to  prove,  or  disprove,  the 
practicability  of  the  poured  house  we  wasted  time  in  academic 
discussions  concerning  "  sweating  walls,"  condensation, 
coldness  in  winter,  and  to  embark  upon  high-falutin  dia- 
tribes concerning  the  imperative  necessity  for  such  abstract 
demands  as  "  breathing  bricks,"  and  other  fantastic  ideas 
which  possibly  are  of  interest  but  do  not  advance  the  realiza- 
tion of  the  cheap  house,  contribute  to  the  solution  of  the 
housing  question,  or  proffer  a  single  step  towards  the  utili- 
zation of  waste. 

The  Americans  are  more  enlightened.  A  new  idea  is 
subjected  to  practical  test  and  discussed  afterwards,  not 
destructively,  but  in  the  hope  of  being  able  to  solve  the 
defects  which  have  manifested  themselves  in  the  experiment 
with  a  view  to  establishing  the  commercial  success  of  the 
idea.  While  our  house-building  quidnuncs  are  leaving  no 
stone  unturned  to  prevent  poured  houses  becoming  an 
established  practice,  our  engineers  are  setting  to  work  in  the 
American  fashion,  and  as  a  result  we  are  building  poured 
concrete  ships  and  other  articles  of  utilitarian  value.  Possibly 
they  are  not  poured  in  the  strict  interpretation  of  the 
Edisonian  term,  but  modified  according  to  experience  which 
has  been  gathered. 

In  1909  the  International  Congress  on  Tuberculosis 
assembled  at  Washington  D.C.  To  stimulate  interest  in  a 
house  built  along  such  lines  as  to  comply  with  the  searching 
requirements  of  perfect  sanitation  and  which  would  be 
particularly  adapted  for  occupation  by  persons  suffering 
from  tuberculosis,  a  reward  was  offered  for  the  best  model 
of  a  germ-proof  house.  A  young  Washington  architect- 
engineer  attacked  the  problem,  submitted  his  conception 
for  such  a  house,  of  the  "  poured  "  type,  and  because  it 
triumphed  over  all  competitors,  which  clung  to  the  rutted 
line  of  thought,  in  the  provision  of  light,  air,  and  sanitation 
features,  carried  off  the  prize. 

In  this  design  the  cellar  which,  if  damp,  forms  an  ideal 
breeding-ground  for  germs  and  disease,  was  eliminated. 
Floors,  walls,  ceilings,  cornices,  bath — all  were  of  cement 
poured  into  moulds.     In  each  room  the  floor  was  given  a 


288  MILLIONS   FROM   WASTE 

slightly  sloping  depression  at  one  corner  and  provided  with 
a  suitable  outlet  and  trap.  The  idea  was  obvious.  The 
housewife  on  cleaning  day  did  not  raise  impenetrable  clouds 
of  dust  to  pollute  the  room.  She  simply  removed  her  furni- 
ture, together  with  all  hangings,  to  be  beaten  in  the  open 
air.  Then  she  turned  on  a  hose  and  flushed  floor,  walls, 
and  ceilings,  the  water  escaping  through  the  trap.  No 
dust  whatever  was  raised,  and  the  room  was  left  dry,  sweet, 
and  clean.  There  were  many  other  features  contributing 
to  the  general  attractiveness  of  the  scheme.  The  model 
aroused  more  interest  than  any  other  at  the  Congress 
exhibition,  but,  while  one  and  all  declared  the  house  to 
possess  every  attractive  feature,  it  was  regarded  as  merely 
a  fantastic  conception. 

But,  within  the  past  eight  years,  more  than  one  little 
"  poured  cement  "  garden  city  has  come  into  being  in  the 
United  States.  The  first  commercialization  of  the  germ-proof 
house  was  made  near  Washington.  It  was  run  up  and 
occupied  within  30  days,  and  was  conceded  to  be  one  of  the 
prettiest  and  most  comfortable  homes  in  the  countryside, 
although  it  cost  only  about  £400 — $2,000.  To-day  it  is 
surrounded  by  many  others. 

The  scheme  has  triumphed  because  the  Washington 
architect-engineer,  instead  of  deriding  Edison  and  dwelling 
upon  the  defects  of  the  idea,  set  out  to  overcome  the  problems 
involved,  especially  that  identified  with  the  moulds.  He 
has  succeeded.  Instead  of  demanding  an  initial  expenditure 
of  £5,000 — $25,000 — upon  this  preliminary  he  has  reduced 
the  mould  expense  down  to  £100 — $500.  This  brings  the 
idea  within  the  reach  of  commerce.  He  does  not  advocate 
a  mould  for  the  complete  house,  but  pursues  what  may  be 
described  as  sectional-stage  moulding.  Plates  of  steel  are 
pressed  into  flanged  sections  24  inches  square.  These  are 
clipped  and  wedged  together  to  form  a  trough  to  hold  the 
liquid  cement  until  it  hardens.  Above  this  row  of  plates 
is  disposed  a  second  similar  row,  forming  another  trough 
upon  the  top  of  that  which  has  already  been  filled,  and 
which  is  setting.  When  the  lower  trough  contents  have 
hardened  the  lower  array  of  plates  is  rolled  over  to  form 
another  trough  above  the  one  in  which  the  cement  has  been 
run,  this  overlapping  process,  as  the  wall  hardens,  being 
continued   until    I  lie   top   has   been    reached.     These   plates 


HOUSE-BUILDING  WITH  WASTES  280 

also  serve  as  forms  for  the  moulding  of  the  floors  and  roof, 
and  are  additionally  attractive  because  they  readily  admit 
of  the  introduction  of  any  desired  artistic  finish.  It  is  a 
system  which  lends  itself  to  cheap  and  rapid  construction,  as 
events  have  amply  proved.  That  the  "  poured  "  germ-proof 
house,  built  in  one  solid  block,  possesses  distinct  advantages 
over  the  building  carried  out  along  orthodox  lines  is  evident 
from  the  alacrity  with  which  such  homes  are  purchased 
or  occupied,  a  tendency  which  is  just  as  pronounced  in  this 
country  as  in  the  United  States.  This  tends  to  demonstrate 
that  while  the  man-in-the-street  knows  nothing  concerning 
the  pros  and  cons  of  building  materials,  he  certainly  does 
appreciate  the  overwhelming  advantages  of  concrete,  which, 
be  it  noted,  is  the  logical  antidote  to  jerry-building. 

That  the  poured,  one-piece  house  is  not  merely  attractive 
because  of  its  relative  cheapness  is  evidenced  by  the  number 
of  stately  homes  which  have  been  built  in  accordance  with 
this  principle  upon  the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic.  Seeing 
that  these  homes  have  been  built  to  the  order  of,  and  are 
occupied  by,  those  to  whom  cost  is  a  trifling  consideration, 
it  would  certainly  seem  as  if  the  so-called  defects  of  the  poured 
house  were  more  imaginary  than  real.  I  have  seen  magnifi- 
cent homes,  ranging  in  cost  from  £5,000  to  £25,000 — $25,000 
to  $125,000 — built  from  foundation  to  roof  upon  the  Edisonian 
idea.  They  certainly  would  have  been  promptly  demolished 
and  rebuilt  in  other  material  if  the  monolithic  house  possessed 
even  the  slightest  sign  of  any  one  of  the  many  ills  to  which 
it  is  academically  said  to  be  exposed. 

Industrial  corporations  in  the  United  States,  as  in  Britain, 
are  faced  with  problems  concerning  the  housing  of  their 
employees.  And  they  are  just  as  perplexing  to  solve.  The 
Delaware,  Lackawanna  and  Western  Railroad  Company 
was  concerned  with  the  provision  of  homes  for  its  wage- 
earners  in  the  vicinity  of  one  of  its  mines.  The  question  was 
surveyed  from  every  possible  angle,  and  finally  it  was  decided 
that  the  only  really  attractive  solution  was  the  provision 
of  a  little  garden  city  of  concrete  houses,  built  upon  the 
poured  system.  The  authorities  concluded  that  in  this 
way  only  would  it  be  possible  to  provide  model  sanitary 
homes,  possessing  every  inducement,  at  an  attractive 
price,  and  the  project  was  handed  over  to  the  architect- 
engineer  whose  germ-proof  house  had  aroused  the  interest 

19 


290  MILLIONS  FROM  WASTE 

of    the    International    Tuberculosis    Congress    two    years 
previously. 

The  houses  are  built  in  pairs,  thus  being  semi-detached. 
Each  is  of  two  floors  with  flat  roof,  the  accommodation 
comprising  on  the  ground  floor  living-  and  dining-rooms 
measuring  n  feet  and  n  feet  6  inches  by  12  feet  4  inches, 
respectively,  large  kitchen,  pantry,  and  commodious  lobby 
with  the  projecting  porch  incidental  to  American  homes. 
Upon  the  first  floor  are  two  bedrooms  measuring  11  feet 
3  inches  and  11  feet  6  inches  by  12  feet  6  inches,  a 
smaller  room,  and  a  porch  which  may  be  used  as  an 
open-air  sleeping  chamber,  if  desired,  or  lounge,  with  the 
usual  offices.  The  houses  are  set  out  after  the  manner 
now  being  followed  in  these  islands,  that  is  around  the  four 
sides  of  a  rectangle,  facing  a  commodious  green  and  flanked 
on  the  opposite  side  by  a  deep  green  lawn.  The  roads  skirt 
the  village  on  all  sides,  the  highway  approaches  to  the  inner 
square  being  diagonally  from  each  of  the  four  corners. 

In  carrying  out  the  scheme  the  designer  decided  to 
utilize  to  the  full  the  available  materials  upon  the  spot. 
This  was  waste  from  the  adjacent  mines,  in  the  form  of 
cinders,  with  hydrate  of  lime  to  give  density  and  weather- 
proofness.  Speed  in  construction  being  a  vital  factor,  a 
novel  system  was  introduced.  A  railway  track  was  laid 
around  the  entire  group  of  40  houses.  The  mixing  plant 
was  mounted  upon  one  flat  car  which  was  also  equipped 
with  an  efficient  apparatus  to  hoist  the  concrete.  Behind 
this  was  a  second  car  carrying  the  cement,  sand,  and  cinder. 
The  ingredients  were  shovelled  into  the  mixer,  work  being 
continuous.  The  train  pulled  up  before  the  first  pair  of 
houses,  the  moulds  forming  the  trough  of  which  were  in 
position.  The  concrete  was  hoisted  and  discharged  into  an 
elevated  hopper  on  the  vehicle  from  which  a  feed  pipe  and 
spout  was  extended  to  the  mould  trough  of  the  house-wall. 
The  concrete  was  run  into  the  trough  until  it  was  filled,  when 
the  stream  was  shut  off,  the  feed  pipe  lifted,  and  the  train 
moved  on  to  the  next  house,  where  the  cycle  of  operations 
was  repeated.  By  the  time  the  train  had  completed  its  circuit 
and  had  again  reached  the  first  house  the  concrete  previously 
poured  had  hardened  sufficiently  to  permit  the  moulds  to 
be  raised  to  form  the  succeeding  trough,  and  so  was  ready  to 
receive  another  pouring  of  cement.     It  will  be  seen  that 


HOUSE-BUILDING  WITH  WASTES  291 

construction  throughout  the  40  houses  was  not  only  continuous 
but  each  supply  of  concrete  increased  the  height  of  the  wall 
by  about  24  inches,  or  completed  the  flooring  as  the  case 
might  be.  The  building  process  was  not  only  exceedingly 
simple,  being  free  from  all  complicated  mechanism,  but 
involved  the  employment  of  the  minimum  of  labour,  which 
conduced  to  extremely  cheap  erection.  The  re-setting  of 
the  moulds  occasions  in  this  system  no  difficulty,  inasmuch 
as  being  hinged  they  are  merely  swung  up  and  automatically 
fall  into  position  to  form  the  mould.  The  work  was  com- 
menced late  in  the  year  191 1  and  was  completed  in  the 
spring  of  1912,  having  to  be  suspended  during  the  winter 
months,  when,  of  course,  all  building  operations,  irrespective 
of  materials  used,  is  brought  to  a  standstill. 

The  houses  provided  in  this  manner  are  not  only  attractive, 
but  are  provided  at  a  price  bringing  them  readily  within  the 
reach  of  the  wage-earner.  True,  one  objection  might  be 
levelled  against  such  standardization  as  it  were,  and  that 
is  the  stereotyped  design,  but  in  this  instance  this  is  possible 
of  decided  relief  by  resort  to  tree,  shrub,  and  flower  embellish- 
ment in  which  individuality  is  given  free  rein,  and  which 
effectively  breaks  up  all  tendency  towards  monotony.  But 
apart  from  extraneous  treatment,  the  village  cannot  be 
described  as  being  more  monotonous  than  our  terrace  system 
of  providing  homes  for  the  workers  so  common  to  our  indus- 
trial centres,  while  even  our  much-vaunted  garden  cities 
are  freely  criticized  from  the  general  atmosphere  of  similarity. 

However,  it  is  cost  of  construction  which  constitutes 
the  all-important  factor,  and  the  poured  house  has  demon- 
strated what  can  be  done  in  this  instance.  A  similar  cement 
city  is  under  way  for  residential  purposes  upon  the  outskirts 
of  Chicago.  The  bungalow  type  of  house  is  being  favoured 
here.  In  this  instance  cellar  walls  and  first-story  walls, 
measuring  some  30  by  40  feet,  have  been  poured  in  four 
days.  The  cost  of  construction  has  been  exceptionally 
low,  even  for  America  where  higher  wages  and  charges 
prevail,  the  cost  of  building  a  6-inch  wall  which  in  poured 
concrete  is  ample  for  either  one-  or  two-story  buildings,  having 
been  brought  down  to  4d. — 8  cents — per  foot,  which  is 
well  below  the  cost  of  frame  houses,  admittedly  the  cheapest 
form  of  construction  in  the  United  States. 

The  poured  house  or  any  other  system   of   monolithic 


292  MILLIONS  FROM  WASTE 

structure  wrought  in  concrete  is  freely  assailed  in  these 
islands  for  being  damp,  intolerably  cold  in  winter,  hot  in 
summer,  and  the  walls  liable  to  condensation.  These  are 
the  popular  objections  raised  against  the  idea.  But  the 
experience  of  those  who  live  in  such  homes  in  America 
completely  refutes  such  statements.  The  houses  are  declared 
emphatically  to  be  bone-dry,  exceptionally  warm  in  winter 
with  a  freedom  from  draughts,  cool  in  summer,  and  free 
from  condensation.  The  latter  defect,  it  is  pointed  out, 
even  if  it  should  become  manifest,  is  not  irremediable.  The 
chemist  can  solve  it  quickly  and  cheaply.  But  the  great 
feature  which  makes  irresistible  appeal  to  those  who  dwell 
in  such  homes  is  that  they  are  always  sweet  and  clean. 
Washing  down  walls,  ceilings  and  floors  of  a  room  at  one  and 
the  same  time  with  a  garden  hose  is  something  beyond  the 
comprehension  of  British  householders,  but  they  will  scarcely 
deny  its  virtues,  and,  probably,  wish  heartily  that  they 
were  in  a  similar  happy  position,  because  nothing  detracts 
so  seriously  from  the  pleasures  and  comfort  of  the  home 
as  dust  and  dinginess. 

While  we  display  an  inexplicable  hesitation  to  build  a 
single  house  upon  the  poured  system  to  discover  the  character 
of  the  objections  which  are  said  to  obtain,  thereby  ignoring 
the  precept  that  an  ounce  of  solid  fact  is  worth  a  ton  of 
theory,  we  are  steadily  moving  towards  the  concrete  home, 
although  the  pioneers  are  being  called  upon  to  battle  fiercely 
against  the  organized  forces  of  prejudice,  conservatism,  and 
vested  interests.  In  order  to  comply  with  national  and  other 
traditions,  so  far  as  practicable,  the  brick  system  is  being- 
followed.  Machines  have  been  devised  whereby  bricks,  but 
wrought  in  concrete,  are  speedily  and  cheaply  produced. 

The  outstanding  characteristic  of  the  most  approved 
of  these  appliances  is  the  ability  to  fashion  brick-like  masses 
of  concrete  of  varying  sizes  and  dimensions.  One  of  the 
most  handy  machines  of  this  character  is  the  "  Winget," 
wherewith  a  wide  variety  of  concrete  formations  may  be 
fashioned  cheaply  and  expeditiously,  and  adapted  to  every 
conceivable  building  requirement.  This  machine  is  note- 
worthy from  the  simplicity  of  its  design  and  operation, 
compactness,  and  high  speed  of  working,  as  well  as  imposing 
the  minimum  demand  upon  skilled  labour.  The  concrete  is 
not  run,  but  is  shovelled  into  the  mould  and  tamped  down. 


HOUSE-BUILDING  WITH  WASTES  293 

When  charged  the  depression  of  a  lever  lifts  the  block,  and 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  permit  its  ready  removal  by  two 
men  armed  with  a  carrying  bar  fitted  with  forks  which  grip 
the  under  edges  of  the  mass. 

This  machine  has  been  extensively  utilized  in  this  country, 
and  it  has  proved  highly  efficient  in  working.  It  is  excellently 
adapted  for  the  preparation  of  blocks  or  slabs  from  waste  mate- 
rials, such  as  the  clinker  refuse  from  electric  light  generating 
stations,  dust-destructors,  and  other  industrial  establishments 
in  general,  as  well  as  such  other  residues  as  coke  breeze, 
chalk,  and  rubble.  High  speed  of  working,  combined  with 
the  size  of  the  block  which  may  be  turned  out  therewith, 
enables  it  to  consume  such  material  at  relatively  high  speed. 
In  a  Midland  town  where  aggregate  of  a  waste  character 
was  required  for  the  fashioning  of  such  blocks,  the  whole 
of  the  daily  accumulation  of  residue  from  the  local  electric 
light  station,  averaging  seven  tons,  had  to  be  supplemented 
by  supplies  of  similar  wTaste  from  private  industrial  establish- 
ments to  keep  the  machine  working  steadily  throughout 
the  day. 

With  such  a  machine  practically  any  form  of  inorganic 
residue  can  be  put  to  useful  constructional  account.  Its 
perfection  is  enabling  private  authorities  to  exploit  profitably 
dumps  of  refuse  which  have  long  been  eyesores  in  the 
locality  for  material  to  satisfy  their  own  building  needs. 
One  gas  company,  which  formerly  contracted  in  the  usual 
way  for  extensions  to  its  buildings,  generally  in  brick  or 
stone,  now  completes  all  such  work  with  its  own  labour 
and  with  its  own  waste,  its  one  expenditure  for  material 
being  the  requisite  cement.  It  encountered  pronounced 
difficulty  in  disposing  of  the  coke  breeze  or  dust ;  it  was 
virtually  unmarketable.  Conspicuous  piles  accumulated 
because  it  was  disdained  as  fuel.  The  company  acquired 
a  "  Winget  "  machine,  and  by  mixing  the  breeze  with  cement 
converted  the  useless  refuse  into  substantial  building  blocks. 
Those  which  it  does  not  require  for  its  own  building  operations 
find  a  ready  market.  The  outstanding  fact,  however,  is 
that  all  recent  building  extensions  are  carried  out  with 
concrete  blocks  prepared  upon  the  spot  from  material  which 
the  company  produces  during  the  conduct  of  its  business 
and  which  has  always  been  considered  waste  having  no 
commercial  value  whatever. 


294  MILLIONS  FROM  WASTE 

To  the  municipality,  faced  with  residue  accumulating 
from  the  refuse  destructor,  gas,  and  electric  lighting  installa- 
tions, such  a  machine  is  virtually  indispensable.  It  offers 
a  complete  economic  solution  to  a  perplexing  problem.  A 
certain  amount  of  official  building  is  always  necessary,  and 
concrete  blocks  with  clinker  forming  the  aggregate  constitutes 
an  ideal  and  inexpensive  material.  One  great  objection  often 
raised  against  the  utilization  of  cinder  and  other  similar 
residue  for  this  purpose  is  the  dingy  tone  of  the  resultant 
block.  But  this  need  not  constitute  a  handicap.  If  used 
for  the  external  walls  of  cottages  the  concrete  can  be  finished 
off  in  rough-cast,  or  may  even  be  plastered  and  painted. 
In  many  instances  excellent  reproductions  of  half-timbered 
styles  have  been  carried  out  in  this  material,  and  are  far 
more  substantial  than  those  wrought  in  the  conventional 
brick. 

But  the  chemist  must  be  harnessed  to  the  development, 
that  is  if  the  most  satisfactory  results  are  to  be  obtained. 
It  is  the  tendency  to  ignore  the  chemist  which  has  been 
responsible  for  much  concrete  failure  for  homes  in  the  past. 
It  is  imperative  that  clinker  refuse  be  analysed.  If  it  be 
associated  with  fused  glass  it  is  useless  for  the  purpose,  for 
the  simple  reason  that  the  smooth  surface  of  the  glass  fails 
to  afford  the  requisite  gripping  surface  to  the  cement.  Unless 
care  be  displayed  in  this  connection  disintegration  of  the  block 
will  set  in,  in  which  event  the  concrete  will  be  condemned 
as  a  failure  when,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  the  ignorance  of 
the  individual  and  the  presence  of  the  glass  which  are  re- 
sponsible for  collapse.  Similarly  it  is  essential  that  the 
aggregate  should  be  free  from  organic  material.  This  may 
be  intensely  dry  when  the  mixing  of  the  concrete  is  taken 
in  hand.  But  the  organic  material  will  absorb  the  moisture 
after  the  manner  of  a  sponge,  continuing  to  do  so  until 
completely  saturated.  As  a  result  of  this  action  the  material 
necessarily  expands,  and  so  will  bring  about  the  breakdown 
of  the  concrete.  Therefore,  if  full  advantage  be  taken  of 
the  chemist  specializing  in  constructional  material  in. the 
scientific  preparation  of  concrete,  as  is  done  in  Germany 
and  the  United  States,  failures  will  be  few  and  far  between. 

The  authorities  of  our  towns  and  cities  are  called  upon 
to  handle  5,300,000  tons  of  dust  and  rubble  collected  in  the 
dust-bins  of  the  population  during  the  year.     In  addition 


HOUSE-BUILDING  WITH  WASTES  295 

millions  of  tons  of  similar  refuse  accumulate  from  the  con- 
sumption of  coal  and  coke  by  the  thousands  of  industrial 
establishments  scattered  over  the  country.  How  much  of 
this  huge  yield  of  waste  is  turned  to  industrial  account  ? 
But  an  insignificant  fraction,  as  is  proved  by  its  commanding 
no  market  value.  Certain  enterprising  authorities,  such 
as  the  City  Fathers  of  Glasgow,  by  taking  a  little  trouble, 
are  able  to  dispose  of  the  whole  of  their  output  of  this 
residue  and  at  a  profitable  figure.  Surely  what  can  be  done 
by  one  authority  is  capable  of  being  achieved  by  others  up 
and  down  the  country. 

But  clinker  waste  is  not  the  only  refuse  adapted  to 
building  operations.  Concrete  is  something  like  paper — can 
be  made  virtually  from  anything.  There  are  few  building 
sites  which  are  not  capable  of  yielding  something  in  this 
respect.  This  was  demonstrated  very  conclusively  in  the 
course  of  the  development  of  an  estate  in  Ireland.  The 
work  was  most  comprehensive,  involving  the  provision  of 
factories,  workshops,  farm  buildings,  and  private  residences. 
To  prepare  the  site  it  was  necessary  to  remove  a  substantial 
hill.  Instead  of  excavating  the  obstacle,  dumping  and 
levelling  the  soil  in  the  usual  manner,  it  was  turned  into 
a  "  Winget  "  machine  to  be  converted  into  concrete  blocks, 
which  were  then  utilized  as  the  wherewithal  for  the  con- 
struction of  the  buildings.  The  result  was  conspicuously 
successful,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  development 
scheme  could  have  been  carried  out  so  economically  and 
inexpensively  in  any  other  way. 

There  are  welcome  signs  of  revived  interest  in  the  pos- 
sibilities of  concrete  for  the  building  of  our  homes.  In  many 
parts  of  the  country  there  are  enormous  hillocks  which  at 
the  moment  are  nothing  but  eyesores.  The  pottery  district 
may  be  cited  as  a  case  in  point.  These  disfiguring  piles  have 
hitherto  been  ignored,  although  the  localities  are  clamour- 
ing wildly  for  increased  housing  accommodation  to  satisfy 
the  demands  of  their  citizens.  Yet  these  heaps  are  really 
potential  mines  of  wealth.  Associated  with  cement  and 
deftly  fashioned  they  can  be  converted  into  concrete  bricks, 
the  waste  constituting  ideal  material  for  the  aggregate, 
while,  should  we  be  sufficiently  enterprising  to  acknowledge 
the  possibilities  of  the  poured  cement  house,  their  value 
is  equally  established.     No  city,  town,  or  village  in  these 


296  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

islands  should  suffer  from  a  shortage  of  houses  for  its  peoples, 
and  none  need  tarry  for  bricks.  They  have  ample  construc- 
tional material  at  their  very  doors  to  build  as  many  houses 
as  they  can  possibly  desire.  To  turn  these  potential  resources 
to  account  it  is  only  necessary  to  abandon  our  moth-eaten 
shibboleths,  revise  our  laws  and  regulations  governing 
building  operations,  forget  a  good  deal  of  what  we  are 
supposed  to  have  learned  in  the  past,  and  turn  to  science 
and  engineering  with  a  more  enlightened  spirit.  By  combin- 
ing the  artist  with  the  engineer  and  the  chemist,  and  by 
admitting  the  utilitarian  possibilities  of  waste,  all  the 
difficulties  assailing  this  country  at  the  present  moment 
in  regard  to  one  of  its  greatest  sociological  problems  might 
be  overcome,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  British  Isles  provided 
with  drier,  more  comfortable,  and  more  durable  and  artistic 
homes  than  have  ever  been  brought  within  their  reach  during 
the  centuries  which  have  passed,  and  at  a  fraction  of  the 
cost  which  is  now  held  to  be  inevitable  if  brick  is  to  be 
employed. 


CHAPTER  XX 

THE  FUTURE  OF  THE   WASTE  PROBLEM: 
POSSIBILITIES  FOR  FURTHER  DEVELOPMENT 

What  is  to  be  the  future  of  the  WTaste  Problem  ?  This  is 
the  question  agitating  all  circles  to-day.  The  observance 
and  practice  of  economic  methods  are  being  forced  upon 
us  owing  to  the  high  prices  which  are  obtaining  for  every 
description  of  raw  material,  whether  intended  for  the  table 
or  the  factory. 

To  a  certain  degree  the  action  is  automatic,  from  the 
simple  circumstance  that  supplies  are  strictly  limited. 
Money  does  not  constitute  such  a  determining  factor  to-day 
as  was  the  case  five  years  ago,  although  of  course  it  still 
exercises  a  far-reaching  influence.  But  the  mere  fact  that 
an  adequacy  of  raw  materials  cannot  be  procured  merely 
because  one  may  be  disposed  to  pay  fictitious  prices,  is 
stimulating  interest  in  the  waste  issue  to  a  degree  which, 
under  conventional  conditions,  would  never  have  obtained. 
In  times  of  plenty  one  does  not  pause  to  consider  for  a 
moment  as  to  whether  it  is  worth  while  to  devote  any  time 
and  energy  to  the  exploitation  of  a  certain  refuse. 

But  the  great  question  is  one  not  so  much  concerning 
what  we  can  derive  from  wastes,  but  whether  we  have  really 
digested  the  lessons  which  the  enemy  has  taught  us.  On 
every  side  we  see  startling  evidences  of  what  he  was  able 
to  do  by  scientifically  turning  over  and  using  the  rubbish- 
heap,  and  the  great  wealth  he  was  able  to  acquire  by  following 
such  practices.  We  found  ourselves  hit  at  every  turn  and, 
in  the  hope  of  solving  the  critical  situations  which  arose, 
were  forced  to  follow  the  enemy's  example  and  become  a 
nation  of  chiffonniers.  We  have  acquired  wealth  in  the 
process,  have  discovered  the  value  of  the  mine  which  the 


298  MILLIONS  FROM  WASTE 

junk  pile  represents,  and  realize  that  more  wealth  still 
remains  to  be  extracted  from  such  untapped  resources. 

We  have  also  become  intimately  conversant  with  what 
may  be  described  as  the  most  perplexing  phases  of  the  problem, 
the  greatest  of  which  is  the  segregation  and  collection  of 
the  residues.  It  is  upon  this  rock  that  all  future  effort 
regarding  the  scientific  exploitation  of  waste,  in  these  islands 
at  all  events,  is  in  danger  of  being  wrecked. 

The  mere  description  of  what  we  ourselves  cannot  use 
in  the  course  of  our  operations,  as  waste,  or  rubbish,  invests 
the  project  with  a  dangerously  false  atmosphere.  Being 
regarded  as  worthless  there  is  a  tendency  towards  the  opinion 
that  its  collection  and  segregation  should  be  conducted  along 
honorary  lines.  This  is  a  precarious  policy,  because  it 
repudiates  the  fundamental  law  of  the  labourer  being  worthy 
of  his  hire,  whether  it  be  in  ploughing,  the  smelting  of  steel, 
shipbuilding,  or  the  collection  of  waste. 

Simultaneously  another  immutable  law  is  being  flouted. 
All  matter,  irrespective  of  its  character,  which  is  capable 
of  being  considered  as  a  raw  material,  must  command  a 
market  value.  It  may  be  high,  or  it  may  be  low,  but  the 
fact  remains  unchallenged  that  it  possesses  a  certain  intrinsic 
worth.  Refuse,  which  can  be  worked  into  something  useful, 
is  just  as  much  raw  material  as  a  shipload  of  ore,  or  a  con- 
signment of  gold.  It  is  its  mere  classification  as  waste 
which  imperils  its  commercial  significance.  This  is  demon- 
strated by  the  sudden  importance  and  value  it  instantly 
commands  when  it  becomes  labelled,  not  "  waste,"  but  a 
by-product. 

In  these  circumstances,  therefore,  it  would  represent  a 
decided  progressive  step  if  a  recognized  market  could  be 
established  in  waste  products.  By  so  doing  all  residues 
•could  be  given  accepted  commercial  values  with  which  one 
and  all  might  become  acquainted  by  perusing  quotations, 
in  precisely  the  same  way  as  the  movement  in  the  prices  of 
raw  materials  may  be  followed  by  reference  to  the  daily 
or  weekly  market  lists.  Until  such  time  as  wastes  become 
so  recognized  the  uncertainty  of  supply  must  obtain,  because 
it  is  the  very  ignorance  of  the  subject  which  contributes 
to  the  loss  of  such  material  through  lire  and  other  equally 
destructive  measures  with  its  appalling  loss  of  wealth. 

The  establishment  of  a  market  price  for  all  and  every 


THE   WASTE  PROBLEM  299 

description  of  waste  would  act  as  the  direct  incentive  to 
preserve  anything  and  everything  for  further  possible  use. 
This  was  proved  very  conclusively  during  the  war,  when 
bones  and  paper  were  in  such  urgent  request,  the  one  for 
■the  reclamation  of  the  fat,  and  the  other  for  re-pulping. 
Under  normal  conditions  both  wastes  had  received  indifferent 
consideration,  and  immense  quantities  of  the  two  materials 
suffered  complete  useless  destruction  by  fire.  The  premium 
placed  upon  the  price  of  bones  was  only  |d.,  or  I  cent,  a 
pound,  the  butcher  being  regarded  as  the  collecting  medium. 
That  is  to  say  the  bones  would  be  paid  for  at  the  above  rate 
upon  surrender  to  the  butcher.  The  reward  was  not  high, 
but  it  proved  to  be  sufficient  to  induce  people  to  husband 
their  bones  and  to  dispose  of  them  in  the  recognized  market. 
It  was  the  same  with  paper.  The  average  housewife  devoted 
but  little  attention  to  the  harvesting  of  this  waste  until  she 
learned  that  the  authorities  were  ready  to  pay  id. — 2  cents — 
at  least  per  pound  therefor  through  its  accredited  agents. 
Instantly  she  commenced  to  display  thrift,  and  was  some- 
what surprised  by  the  money  which  could  be  picked  up 
in  this  manner.  Yet  it  is  safe  to  assert  that  had  no 
financial  value  been  placed  upon  these  wastes  barely 
50  per  cent,  of  what  was  actually  secured  would  have  been 
forthcoming. 

Unfortunately  there  is  a  large  class  of  waste  exploiters 
which  is  disposed  to  trade  upon  the  ignorance  or  indifference 
of  the  community.  In  the  knowledge  that  the  average  house, 
office  and  factory  has  no  conception  of  the  value  of  its  refuse, 
or  is  ready  to  part  with  it  for  nothing  because  it  is  regarded 
as  a  nuisance,  the  waste  merchant  is  disposed  to  become 
discriminatory  and  autocratic.  He  is  perfectly  ready  to 
acquire  what  he  knows  full  well  possesses  a  distinct  value 
so  long  as  he  can  get  it  for  nothing.  The  moment  the  owner 
sets  a  value  upon  the  flotsam  and  jetsam  the  waste  mer- 
chant will  have  nothing  to  do  with  it.  He  assumes  an 
indifferent  if  not  a  dictatorial  and  impossible  attitude  to 
which  the  second  party  to  the  projected  bargain  takes 
immediate  exception.  The  upshot  is  that  sooner  than  part 
with  the  material  for  nothing,  and  in  the  knowledge  that 
the  acquirer  is  certain  to  sell  out  in  turn  at  a  profit,  the 
material  is  withdrawn  completely  from  possible  circulation, 
and  so  suffers  irretrievable  loss.     To  barter  is  human,  and 


300  MILLIONS  FROM  WASTE 

this  applies  as  forcibly  to  waste  as  to  houses,  commodities 
and  produce  in  general. 

The  waste  market  must  be  set  upon  a  firm  and  solid 
basis.  Those  who  have  specialized  in  this  field  of  trading 
during  the  past  few  years,  and,  as  a  result,  have  become 
acquainted  with  its  possibilities,  and  the  true  value  of  such 
material  as  is  to  be  obtained  through  the  devious  channels, 
are  in  the  position  to  effect  such  a  reform.  The  price  of 
waste  is  naturally  subsidary  to  the  fluctuations  in  the  market 
quotations  of  the  materials  whence  it  is  drawn,  as  well  as 
of  those  normally  employed  in  the  industries  to  which  waste 
may  be  applied.  The  general  conditions  are  decidedly  more 
complex  than  those  prevailing  in  the  handling  of  straight 
materials,  for  the  simple  reason  that  then  only  the  one 
market  needs  to  be  watched. 

Factors  of  cost  also  require  to  be  closely  followed.  In 
the  true  economic  and  scientific  exploitation  of  all  waste 
products  the  question  of  cost  is  vital.  It  may  easily  jeopardize 
such  utilization.  Naturally  a  margin  of  profit  must  be  avail- 
able from  the  working-up  of  the  material,  not  only  to  ensure 
its  use,  but  also  to  safeguard  the  sources  of  supply.  This 
margin  must  be  determined,  not  on  the  top  of  the  market 
as  is  the  case  at  the  present  moment  when  conditions  are 
abnormal,  but  when  prices  for  raw  materials  are  at  their 
minimum.  If,  then,  the  exploitation  of  waste  can  be  con- 
ducted in  such  a  way  as  to  compete  successfully  with 
ostensible  raw  materials,  recovery  must  hold  its  own  tc* 
become  more  and  more  profitable  as  the  market  rises.  By- 
products can  be  exploited  only  so  long  as  the  cost  of  preparing 
them  for  commerce  proves  profitable.  If  it  should  become 
cheaper  to  treat  raw  materials  for  a  similar  article  then 
waste  reclamation  must  suffer  abandonment,  except  in  those 
rare  instances  where  every  contributory  source  of  supply 
must  be  pressed  into  service.  Such  conditions  rarely  obtain 
on  a  low  market,  because  the  latter  is  directly  attributable 
to  the  circumstance  that  supply  is  in  advance  of  demand. 
It  is  the  inversion  of  this  law  which  forces  high  prices. 

Efforts  have  been  made  to  stimulate  the  preservation 
and  surrender  of  waste  along  voluntary  lines.  But  such 
measures  cannot  hope  to  be  commercially  successful,  except 
tinder  peculiar  circumstances,  as  for  instance  when  patrio- 
tism may  act  as  the  incentive.     The  voluntary  handling 


THE  WASTE  PROBLEM  301 

of  waste  must  of  necessity  prove  wanting  because  it  is 
deficient  in  discipline,  method,  and  organization  such  as 
science  demands  to  fulfil  the  conquests  she  indicates.  Com- 
pulsory measures  are  absolutely  imperative,  otherwise  all 
the  mickle  which  makes  the  muckle  must  slip  through  the 
meshes  of  the  net,  no  matter  how  well  it  may  be  cast.  The 
Germans  were  enabled  to  bid  defiance  to  the  world,  notwith- 
standing the  stringency  of  the  blockade,  by  the  elaboration  of 
rigid  laws  ensuring  the  collection  of  all  waste.  Such  measures 
were  in  force  more  or  less  during  the  halcyon  pre-war  days, 
but  were  severely  tightened  up  when  national  existence  was 
seriously  threatened.  Similar  compulsory  methods  will 
need  to  be  introduced  into  this  country  to  ensure  the  full 
recovery  of  valuable  materials  for  industry,  that  is  if  we 
are  to  reduce  our  purchases  from  abroad.  The  desired  end 
can  be  achieved  indirectly  by  prohibiting  the  acquisition  of 
the  obvious  raw  materials  from  foreign  sources,  because 
instantly  the  refuse  and  residues  capable  of  taking  the  place 
of  the  raw  materials  will  commence  to  appreciate  in  value 
and  accordingly  will  be  preserved  and  utilized. 

But  the  citizens  of  Britain  are  opposed  to  compulsion 
in  any  and  every  form.  To  impose  such  conditions  is  to 
interfere  with  the  liberty  of  the  subject,  although  absolute 
and  unfettered  freedom,  as  experience  has  adequately 
testified,  reacts  against  the  welfare  of  the  individual  and  the 
community  in  general.  Failing  uncompromising  compulsory 
measures  is  it  possible  to  achieve  comparative  success  by 
spontaneous  private  enterprise  ? 

To  obtain  an  indication  of  what  can  be  achieved  in  this 
direction  it  is  necessary  to  go  to  the  French  capital.  There 
an  enterprising  and  energetic  Frenchman,  Monsieur  Verdier- 
Dufour,  undoubtedly  built  up  one  of  the  largest  businesses 
in  the  world — founded  upon  dust-bin  waste.  The  organiz- 
ation was  somewhat  intricate  and  full  of  inner  workings 
although  highly  effective  in  the  production  of  results, 
because  the  guiding  spirit  knew  that  everything  has  its 
specific  use. 

The  operation  commences  in  the  gutter  at  the  bin  in 
which  the  householder  has  dumped  his  refuse  and  which 
he  has  moved  to  the  kerbstone  for  collection.  Now  the 
Frenchman  is  a  cute  bargainer,  as  the  whole  world  knows, 
and  the  concierge,  after  the  passing  of  the  ordinance  com- 


302  MILLIONS  FROM  WASTE 

pelting  the  householder  to  bin  his  refuse,  promptly  saw  a 
means  to  improve  his  pocket.  The  bin  was  a  lucky  dip 
and  accordingly  was  well  worth  exploiting  as  a  concession. 
He  promptly  drove  a  bargain  with  one  class  of  the  vast 
army  of  Paris  waste-gatherers  which  entitled  the  individual 
to  rummage  the  bin  before  the  collector  came  along,  the 
only  requirement  being  that  the  "  miner  "  should  be  up 
early  and  on  the  spot  before  the  refuse  carts  commenced 
operations.  The  placier,  as  this  individual  is  called,  did 
his  work  well — the  bin  contained  little  of  material  value 
after  he  had  sorted  its  contents.  But  other  less  luckless 
members  of  the  garbage-rummaging  fraternity  did  not  spurn 
to  submit  the  tailings  from  the  first  process  to  another 
treatment  and  reap  a  harvest  in  the  process. 

The  odds  and  ends  gathered  in  this  manner,  and  which 
were  of  a  most  diversified  nature,  for  the  most  part  found 
their  way  to  Monsieur  Verdier-Dufour's  establishment,  where 
the  precise  value  of  each  article,  and  the  grade  of  each  range 
of  substances,  became  known  to  the  uttermost  centime. 
Nothing  was  too  small  to  be  examined  and  each  article  had 
its  individual  bin.  The  man  at  the  helm  knew  the  exact 
application  for  each  article,  while  he  was  a  master-mind  in 
following  the  markets.  When  quotations  were  abnormally 
low  he  could  hold  on  for  the  return  of  better  times.  His 
waste  commanded  the  admiration  of  the  firms  with  which 
he  dealt  because  he  maintained  the  standard  of  his  products 
which  were  exactly  as  described.  Manufacturers  merely 
had  to  dump  the  waste  into  their  machines,  thus  treating 
it  as  if  it  were  raw  material.  There  was  no  interference 
with  the  rigid  routine  of  their  business,  nor  were  they  called 
upon  to  expend  a  further  penny  in  rendering  the  waste 
suitable  for  their  intentions.  So  the  master-mind  built 
up  a  large  and  highly  lucrative  business  and  thus  there  was 
very  little  household  waste  which  escaped  reclamation. 

Co-operative  societies  among  the  rag-pickers  supple- 
mented individual  effort  in  this  field.  In  this  instance  the 
process  is  simpler  because  it  is  conducted  along  broader  lines. 
Sorting  is  not  conducted  to  such  a  fine  degree  as  under  the 
individual  system  above  described.  Consequently  it  suffers 
because  lower  prices  are  paid.  Waste  commands  a  price 
according  to  the  time  and  labour  which  will  have  to  be 
expended  by  the   purchaser   before  such   material  can  be 


THE  WASTE  PROBLEM  303 

safely  turned  into  the  precise  channels  of  the  huge  manufac- 
turing machine  for  which  it  has  been  acquired. 

The  objection  to  both  co-operative  and  individual  methods, 
such  as  I  have  described,  is  that  they  can  only  be  conducted 
upon  the  requisite  scale  in  the  very  largest  cities  where 
the  volume  of  material  to  be  handled  is  relatively  heavy. 
Waste  must  be  forthcoming  in  a  steady  stream  of  uniform 
volume  to  justify  its  exploitation,  and  the  fashioning  and 
maintenance  of  these  streams  is  the  supreme  difficult}'. 

Ostensibly,  in  this  country  we  have  the  very  finest 
machinery  in  existence  for  the  reclamation  of  waste  of  every 
description — the  municipal  and  civic  authorities.  But,  as 
results  have  conclusively  demonstrated,  they  are  the  least 
efficient  institutions  in  this  respect.  The  few  cities  which 
are  able  to  point  to  great  achievements  in  this  field  are  the 
very  exceptions  which  serve  to  prove  the  rule.  They  do- 
so  in  the  most  convincing  manner,  and  incidentally  bring 
home  to  us  very  vividly  the  enormous  wealth  which  we  are- 
deliberately  throwing  away  through  lack  of  enterprise  and 
adequate  organization. 

The  system  is  responsible  for  this  deplorable  state  of 
affairs.  The  average  municipal  engineer,  even  if  anxious 
to  excel  in  this  province,  finds  himself  hampered  at  every 
turn.  He  is  not  vested  with  sufficient  authority  or  freedom 
to  carry  any  carefully  prepared  scheme  into  operation  without 
the  sanction  of  this,  or  that,  Committee  which,  as  a  rule, 
is  notorious  for  its  lack  of  practical  knowledge,  more  parti- 
cularly in  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  value  of  waste.  Then 
the  multiplicity  of  officials  and  their  salaries  reacts  against 
every  possibility  of  a  scheme  being  turned  into  a  financial: 
success. 

It  is  a  matter  for  serious  discussion  as  to  whether  our 
whole  system  of  waste  recovery,  in  so  far  as  it  affects  muni- 
cipalities, should  not  be  overhauled  from  top  to  bottom — 
even  superseded.  It  should  be  entrusted  to  private  enterprise 
acting  under  licence.  Were  such  a  force  encouraged  we 
might  safely  anticipate  the  provision  of  well-equipped 
comprehensive  plants,  similar  to  those  which  I  have  described,, 
for  the  treatment  of  waste  of  every  description  incurred1 
within  the  district  in  which  it  operates.  To  this  centre 
should  be  borne  refuse  of  every  description  for  segregation 
and  preparation  for  the  mills  of  industry.     Private  enter- 


304  MILLIONS  FROM  WASTE 

prise,  from  its  close  contact  with  the  markets,  would  be  able 
to  set  prices  at  which  it  would  be  prepared  to  purchase 
waste  of  every  description  from  a  dog-mauled  bone  to  a 
worn-out  scrubbing-brush  ;  a  discarded  daily  paper  to  an 
abandoned  straw  hat  or  pair  of  tattered  boots. 

By  fixing  prices  for  all  and  every  description  of  residue 
preservation  and  segregation  at  the  source  would  be  en- 
couraged. The  housewife,  caretaker  of  the  office,  and 
manager  of  the  factory  would  see  that  all  waste  was  carefully 
husbanded,  and  that  nothing  possessing  the  slightest  value 
would  be  thrown  away.  The  dust-collectors  could  be 
encouraged  to  participate  in  the  general  round-up  of  waste 
by  being  given  a  commission  upon  all  useful  material  brought 
in.  It  might  be  an  over-riding  commission  to  ensure  complete 
and  frequent  collection.  It  is  only  necessary  to  apply 
sufficient  stimulus  in  the  form  of  hard  cash  to  ensure  that 
nothing  is  wasted.  Private  enterprise  could  carry  out 
such  a  scheme  whereas  municipal  authorities  are  precluded 
from  following  such  a  course. 

Under  private  auspices  it  would  also  become  possible 
to  exploit  the  waste  accruing  in  our  rural  districts.  Residences 
by  the  wayside,  hamlets  and  country  homes  from  their 
isolation  have  escaped  the  tentacles  of  previous  recovery 
systems.  No  recognized  specialist  in  residues,  with  the 
exception  perhaps  of  the  wardrobe  dealer,  ever  passes  their 
way  to  pay  a  call.  But,  with  modern  motor  transport 
facilities  it  would  be  possible  to  call  at  these  possible  scattered 
sources  of  supply  for  anything  and  everything,  and  at 
regular  intervals,  so  that  the  owners  might  be  induced  to 
preserve  their  useful  materials.  It  is  maintained  that  such 
collection  would  never  prove  profitable.  Possibly  not  when 
considered  upon  its  own  footing,  but  when  contemplated 
in  a  general  scheme  it  would  not  only  be  lucrative,  but 
contribute  to  the  higher  efficiency  of  the  plant  employed 
from  being  able  to  raise  the  working  output  to  one  more 
closely  approaching  the  maximum  capacity. 

Such  a  method  of  recovering  the  waste  would  stimulate 
competition  which,  in  turn,  would  tend  to  the  hardening 
of  prices  totheadvantageof  those  who  have  waste  for  disposal. 
The  plant  would  only  need  to  study  local  conditions  in  so 
far  as  the  disposal  of  readily  decomposing  refuse  was  con- 
cerned,  such  as  that  from  householders,  fish,  meat  and  other 


THE  WASTE   PROBLEM  305 

organic  matter.  The  municipal  authorities,  by  virtue  of 
their  powers,  would  be  able  to  ensure  that  this  class  of  refuse 
■was  collected  and  treated  promptly  in  the  interests  of  the 
health  of  the  community.  Such  waste  as  is  not  susceptible 
to  deterioration  could  be  sent  or  drawn  from  distant  points, 
according  to  the  advantage  of  price  offered,  as  is  actually 
the  case  to-day  in  regard  to  certain  materials. 

Private  enterprise  would  also  exercise  another  far-reaching 
beneficial  influence.  It  would  not  lag  behind  the  clock  of 
progress.  Science  is  ever  advancing  and  the  exploitation 
of  waste  lies  in  its  true  scientific  utilization.  Under  the 
present  conditions  inventive  effort  in  this  province  is  not 
able  to  exercise  the  influence  or  reap  the  benefits  which  it 
really  deserves.  The  tendency  to  be  satisfied  with  what  is 
already  installed,  no  matter  how  inefficient  it  may  be,  is 
too  deeply  implanted.  On  the  other  hand,  competition 
is  the  lever  which  impels  private  enterprise.  To  turn  a 
blind  eye  to  invention  is  to  court  disaster. 

Although  we  have  made  vast  strides  during  the  past 
few  years  in  the  processes  of  reclamation  and  utilization  of 
waste  we  are  still  far  from  having  penetrated  the  threshold 
of  the  new  world  of  industry,  science,  and  invention  which 
it  embraces.  The  unknown  lies  before  us.  For  aught 
contemporary  knowledge  can  say,  other  triumphs  and  vast 
fields  of  conquest,  comparable  with  those  associated  with 
the  gas  and  oil  industries,  are  waiting  to  be  discovered, 
and  this  fact  is  adequate  to  foster  experiment,  research,  and 
investigation. 

We  talk  glibly  of  exploiting  waste,  but  how  many  products 
entering  intimately  into  our  everyday  life  are  being  passed 
through  the  mill  of  reclamation  ?  A  little  reflection  will 
speedily  exhaust  the  list.  If  we  look  around  we  can  satisfy 
ourselves  how  much  and  what  a  variety  of  substances  are 
still  being  permitted  to  run  to  utter  loss.  We  have  not 
yet  found  a  use  for  spent  matches,  or  a  means  of  retipping 
those  which  have  been  scarcely  lighted,  despite  the  fact 
that  this  indispensable  attribute  to  modern  civilization  has 
increased  from  300  to  800  per  cent,  in  price.  How  many 
typewriter  ribbons  are  used  by  the  tens  of  thousands  of 
offices  in  the  country  during  the  year,  and  what  is  done  with 
them  when  withdrawn  from  the  machines  as  being  unfit 
for  further  service  ?     What  is  done  with   the  stones  and 

20 


306  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

kernels  from  the  millions  of  pounds  of  stone-fruits  consumed 
during  the  year  ?  The  inventor  is  still  confronted  with  the 
prize  which  will  result  from  the  discovery  of  an  economic  use 
for  the  370,000,000  lb.  of  spent  tea-leaves  and  100,000,000  lb. 
of  coffee-grounds  left  in  our  pots,  cups,  and  urns  during 
the  twelve  months. 

The  lists  of  wastes  awaiting  profitable  disposal  are 
extremely  lengthy.  Some  appear  to  be  as  impossible  of 
successful  solution  as  the  discovery  of  the  non-refillable 
bottle.  But  effort  is  not  confined  to  the  perfection  of 
processes  for  the  treatment  of  untouched  wastes,  because 
the  real  solution  of  this  problem  lies  in  the  full  scientific 
utilization  of  the  product  reclaimed.  The  fact  that  a  waste 
is  being  exploited  does  not  imply  that  such  utilization  is 
the  most  profitable.  Investigation  may  indicate  another  and 
totally  different,  as  well  as  more  lucrative  application  for 
a  certain  material.  So  the  inventor  is  not  confined  to  a 
narrow  field  ;  his  opportunities  are  illimitable. 

There  is  one  outstanding  factor  governing  waste  reclama- 
tion which  often  escapes  observation.  It  is  the  only  means 
whereby  the  cost  of  living  may  be  reduced.  Obviously, 
if  a  specific  substance,  whether  it  be  a  foodstuff  or  raw 
material  for  manufacture,  be  applied  exclusively  to  one 
individual  purpose,  and  without  the  residues  resulting  from 
its  preparation,  a  certain  quantity  of  which  must  necessarily 
be  incurred,  being  turned  to  any  economic  account,  the 
one  application  must  bear  the  whole  of  the  cost  involved.  It 
is  by  turning  the  residues  to  some  profitable  account  that  the 
cost  of  the  primary  product  can  be  reduced  to  an  attractive 
level,  and  the  wider  the  margin  of  profit  on  the  by-products 
and  the  more  numerous  the  latter,  the  greater  the  reduction 
possible  upon  the  quotation  for  the  staple. 

For  instance,  were  coal  still  to  be  distilled  exclusively 
for  its  gas,  the  price  of  the  latter  to-day  would  be  so  high  as 
to  be  prohibitive  to  all  but  the  wealthy.  It  is  the  ability 
to  exploit  from  two  to  three  hundred,  or  more,  by-products 
arising  in  the  distillation  process,  which  enables  the  gas 
itself  to  be  sold  at  a  figure  bringing  it  within  the  reach  of 
all.  What  would  be  the  cost  of  our  clothes  were  it  not 
possible  for  the  mills  to  take  the  discarded  woollen  garments, 
shred  them,  combine  the  reconstructed  fleece  with  new  wool, 
and  thus  produce  a  new  cloth  ?     It  is  shoddy,  or  mungo, 


THE  WASTE   PROBLEM  307 

which  has  solved  the  problem  of  good  clothing  at  a  relatively- 
low  price  for  all,  because,  to-day,  there  are  very  few  of  us 
who  could  afford  to  buy  suits  made  of  ioo  per  cent,  new 
wool. 

There  are  few  spheres  of  activity  offering  such  attractions, 
or  holding  out  such  tremendous  prizes  to  the  persevering 
and  brilliant  of  thought  as  that  identified  with  the  exploitation 
of  wastes.  The  field  is  so  vast  as  to  be  open  to  the  endeavours 
of  the  layman  as  much  as  to  the  master  of  knowledge.  While 
many  of  the  questions  to  be  answered  are  of  severe  technical 
significance,  there  are  many  which  are  equally  capable  of 
solution  by  the  man,  or  woman,  who  has  had  no  technical 
training.  There  are  many  "  crown  cork  "  problems  awaiting 
solution,  while  there  is  equal  scope  and  opportunity  for 
those  possessed  of  the  powers  of  organization. 

The  opinion  prevails  in  certain  quarters  that  the  present 
wave  of  interest  in  the  scientific  reclamation  of  waste  is 
merely  ephemeral.  Doubtless  this  feeling  prevails  because 
of  the  extreme  length  to  which  the  fetish  of  cheapness  and 
extravagance  had  carried  us  and  which  shortcomings  appeared 
to  be  so  firmly  ingrained  as  to  form  part  of  the  British 
character.  To  a  certain  degree  prevailing  high  prices  are 
certain  to  persuade  us  to  pay  closer  regard  to  this  issue  than 
has  heretofore  been  the  case.  Nevertheless,  the  longer 
such  abnormal  conditions  obtain  the  more  impressed  shall 
we  become  of  the  wealth  to  be  won  from  waste.  The}''  will 
compel  us  to  strive  to  extract  the  utmost  from  the  raw 
material  placed  in  our  hands.  The}'  will  induce  us  to  become 
more  and  more  reluctant  to  discard  a  material  after  we  have 
secured  all  apparent  worth  which  it  appears  to  be  capable 
of  yielding,  from  the  fear  that  the  ultimate  residue  may  still 
contain  something  of  potential  value  which  we  have  not 
succeeded  in  discovering. 

While,  doubtless,  the  gradual  relapse  of  conditions  to 
the  normal  will  exercise  the  effect  of  causing  us  to  pay 
decreasing  regard  to  the  value  of  the  wastes,  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that,  by  the  time  such  a  stage  has  been  reached,  we  shall 
have  become  so  powerfully  impressed  with  the  potentialities 
of  residues  as  to  continue  to  exploit  them  instinctively.  If 
such  be  the  case  we  shall  find  ourselves  in  the  position  of 
being  better  armed  for  the  coming  commercial  struggle  with 
Germany,  to  whom  waste  has  brought  extraordinary  wealth 


308  MILLIONS   FROM  WASTE 

in  the  past.  Thus  equipped  we  should  be  able  to  meet  a 
remorseless  and  clever  commercial  antagonist  on  more  than 
level  terms. 

Of  one  thing  we  may  rest  assured.  Germany,  past- 
master  in  the  art  of  exploiting  wastes,  will  exert  herself  far 
more  strenuously  in  this  field  in  the  future  than  she  has  ever 
done  before.  Economic  considerations  will  compel  her 
to  keep  her  foreign  purchases  of  raw  materials  down  to  the 
irreducible  minimum  and  to  force  her  sales  abroad  to  the 
absolute  maximum  in  order  to  secure  the  rehabilitation 
of  her  trade  balance.  To  consummate  this  end  she  will 
leave  no  stone  unturned  to  exploit  her  refuse  of  every  descrip- 
tion to  the  full.  No  one  knows  more  than  Germany  what 
can  be  done  with  the  so-called  rubbish-heap,  and  no  other 
country  is  more  cognizant  of  the  fact  that  the  industrial 
exploitation  of  waste  creates  wealth.  So  it  behoves  us  to 
keep  a  tight  hand  upon  our  residues  from  household,  office, 
and  factory,  and  to  exploit  them  ourselves  to  our  own  financial 
and  economic  advantage. 


The  End 


Printed  in  Great  liritain  by 

UN  WIN    KKOTHERS,    UMITkD,    lilt   ORbbHAM    l"t.fct;S;,    WOKING    AKD   U)KUON 


Date  Due 


- 




l & 


KQVi    S5»/<£7<V^- 


N0VC7 
DEC  13 '56 


55     / 







0  i£ 


T^"3^ 


BOSTON  COLLEGE 


3  9031   01443980 


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